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BrittonAP2Test1
britton asub
74
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
01/21/2012

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term

 

 

Sensory Organs

Definition
  • specialized extensions of the nervous system


  • generate sensory impulses upon appropriate stimulus
Term

 

 

Sensation vs. Perception

Definition

Sensation = sensory impulse sent to CNS

 

Perception = interpretation by cerebral cortex

 

 

 

Not all sensation = perception

ie. aortal & carotid sinus monitor BP and Bchem, but do not share info w/ cortex to make us consciously aware.

Term

 

 

Classification of Senses:

 

Localization

Definition
  • General: receptors widespread throughout body
                ie touch temp pain


  • Special: receptors are localized in specific sites
                ie sight hear smell taste equilibrium





Term

 

Classification of Senses:

 

Receptor Location

Definition
  • Somatic: rcpt are in outer body wall
             respond to external stimuli ie touch temp pain


  • Visceral: rcpt are in the viscera
          respond to internal stimuli ie pain hunger nausea
Term

 

 

Classification of Sensory Receptors:

 

Location & Source of Stim.

 

 

3 EEP     

Definition

 

  • Exteroreceptors: located near body surface.
    respond to external stimuli
    ie sight hear touch temp pain

  • Enteroreceptors: located in viscera.
    respond to internal stimuli
    ie pain hunger nausea

  • Proprioreceptors: located in skeletal muscles tendons joints and inner ear.
    respond to stim regarding position of body in 3D space.

 

Term

 

Classification of Sensory Receptors:

 

Adaptation Potential

 

 

2  -ics  

Definition

AP=decrease in firing rate over time w/ continual stim.

 

  • Tonic: mnt relatively constant firing rate regardless of
             stim duration ie photoreceptors in retina

  • Phasic: firing rate gradually decreases w/ continual   
               stim ie touch/temp in skin
Term

 

 

Adequate Stimulus

Definition

Each type of receptor produces a specific sensastion IDed w/ stim that rcpt normally responds to.

 

stim is adequate to produce normal response
ie sensing light/sight b/c light hits photoreceptors

Term

 

 

Law of Specific Nerve Energies

Definition

In addition to AS, many rcpt will respond to other stim, esp if they're excessively strong.

 

Perception is the same as for AS regardless of what the other stim is (b/c brain is used to interpreting input from those rcpt that way and is stuck in a rut)

 

therefore strong pressure will activate photorcpt and brain interprets this as light, even if none is present.

Term

 

 

Receptor Potential & Impulse Generation

Definition

stim of sens rcpt causes local hypopolariztion of rcpt mem

 

Graded hypopolarization affected by stim intensity

 

RP can summate (temporal or spatial) to threshold

 

If hypopol is sufficient to reach threshold @ sens fib, AP is generated and imp sent to CNS

Term

 

 

Meissner's Corpuscles

Definition

Located in dermal papillae of hairless areas of skin

ie fingertips/lips

 

consist of dendrites wn a thin CT sheath

 

respond to very light touch

Term

 

Pacinian Corpuscles

Definition

located deep in dermis & some visceral organs/joint capsules/skel musc

 

consist of dendrites wn multilayered CT sheath

 

respond to heavy pressure/vibration

Term

 

 

Free Nerve Endings

Definition

most superficial

 

end as knobs b/w cells in lower epidermis

 

twine around hair roots (hair root plexes)

 

respond to bending of hair

Term

 

 

Pain Receptors

Definition
  • most are free nerve endings

  • respond to chemicals released from damaged tissues

  • found in most tissues

  • sparse in some visc organs
    ie brain (completely absent)
Term

 

 

Sensory Accomodation

 

 

                                       2

Definition

SA= lessening of perception of stimulus over time due to:

 

 

  • sensory adaptation: by phasic receptors

  • stimulus filtering: by cerebral cortex
    (disregards irrelevant stim)
    allows concentration.
    deficit of this w/ ADHD
Term

 

 

Referred Pain

Definition

RP= pain originating from internal organ but perceived as coming from a specific spot on skin

 

(sens fibs share nerve tracts and brain does not differentiate these easily)

 

ie. angina pectoris: left arm neck & chest wall pain b/c of myocardial ischemia that may indicate iminent MInfarc.

 

 

Term

 

 

Thermoreceptors

Definition

free nerve endings

 

seperate heat/cold rcpt

 

  • heat sensitive above 25C/77F

  • cold sensitive below 20C/68F
Term

 

 

Proprioreceptors

 

 

                                         3  nmntjk

Definition
  • neuromuscular spindle: dendrites twined @ skel musc fiber. respond to stretching of fib

  • neurotendonous rcptr: (golgi tendon organs) located @ musc/tendon juncture. respond to tendon tension

  • joint kinesthetic rcptr: located in joint capsule of synovial joints. respond to joint mvt.
Term

 

Special Senses

Definition
  • olfaction
  • gustation
  • photoreception
  • audition
  • equilibrium
Term

 

Olfaction:

 

Structure

Definition

receptor=modified cilia

 

hairs project b/w cells of olfactory epithelium in the top of the nasal cavities


nervelets pass thru cribriform foramina to olfactory bulbs where sens. info is processed

Term

 

Olfaction:

 

Physiology

Definition

nervelets bind scent molecules in inspired air

by firing few types in diff combos, we smell thousands of distinct scents

Term

 

Gustation

Definition

modified cilia

 

hairs project through taste pore

 

taste pore is top of taste bud

 

taste buds located on and around visible papillae

Term

 

Tongue Papillae

Definition

reduced folliate p: side of tounge (leaf)

 

vallate p: flat round at back

 

filiform p: blunt soft cones evenly distributed (blunt in
              humans but hard in sandpaper tongues to aid
              digestion ie cats)

 

fungiform p: blunt knobs evenly distributed

Term

 

Taste Zones

Definition

bitter: wide at back

 

sour: sides

 

salty: front third

 

sweet: tip

 

umami: savory/meat - all over

Term

 

Eye Anatomy

Definition

Optic Nerve

Optic Disc

Sclera

Cornea

Choroid

Retina

Fovia Centralis

Ciliary Body

suspensory Ligament

Lens

Iris

Cornea

Pupil

post. & ant. chambers w/ aqueous humor

chamber of vitreous body w/ vitreous humor

 

Term

 

Cataracts

Definition

clouding of lens due to trauma, meds, unctrld DM, excessive UV exposure

 

causes loss of visual acuity, night blindnedss, halos around lights, eventual blindness

 

Tx: lens prostethic

Term

 

Glaucoma

Definition

caused by increased intraocular pressure

(excess production of or inadequate drainage of a.h.)

 

causes retinal atrophy, loss of visual acuity (peripheral to central field) light halos, gradual blindness

 

Tx: surgery to increase drainage or meds to decrease production ie beta blockers/carbonic amhydrase inhibitors

Term

 

Presbyopia

Definition

age related hardening of lens

 

reduces ability to accomodate for close focus

 

starts age 35-40

 

 

Tx: reading glasses

Term

 

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Definition

CN3 Oculomotor:

Sup. rectus

Med rectus

Inf Rectus

Inf Oblique

 

CN4 Trochlear: Sup Oblique

 

CN6 Abducens: Lateral Rectus

Term

 

Rods

Definition
  • about 100 million per retina
  • most concentrated peripherally
  • black & white
  • detect motion
  • poor acuity bc convergence - image is smeared
Term

 

Rod Convergence

Definition

rods converge to bipolar cells to ganglion

 

low level stimulus so low acuity

 

helps rod function better in dim light bc signal convergence increases firing rate by spatial summation

Term

 

 

Cones

Definition
  • about 7 million per retina
  • most concentrated in fovea centralis in macula
  • produce color images
  • no convergence
  • low function in dim light


    3 colors: green blue red

    firing rods and cones in diff combos can see whole spectrum
Term

 

Visual Pigment

 

Rhodopsin

Definition
  • visual purple
  • protein(opsin) w/ retinoldehyde(retinol)
  • derivative of vit A
  • Vit A derived fr. beta carotene

    Vit A deficiency = blindness
    common in thrid world
Term

 

Retinol Excitation

Definition

retinol usually in bent 11 cis form that is tightly bound to membrane

when light hits it, it converts to straight alltrans form and partly dissociates

this change causes change in membrane permeability and membrane hypopolarizes


Term

 

Bleaching Rxn

Definition

pigment changes with excitation

 

11 cis= deep purple

 

all trans = light yellow/orange

Term

 

Return to 11cis

Definition

after excitation, alltrans retinol must be converted back to 11cis or replaced w/ fresh 11cis

 

this must occur in absence of light

 

ie takes eyes longer to adapt light to dark than vice versa

Term

 

Partial Decussation

Definition

each retina sends fibs to both sides of brain

 

info is mixed and fields are fused

 

 

different angles provide depth perception but this is not a funct of decussation

Term

 

External Ear Anatomy

Definition
  • auricle/pinna - direx sound into canal

  • ext.acoustic meatus -canal - lined w ceruminous glands

  • cerumen - repels arthropods & moistens tympanum

  • Tympanum - double layer membrane b/w middle and outer ear. 1cm diameter. outer=stratified squamous inner=low columnar
Term

 

Middle Ear Anatomy

Definition

air filled chamber w/n petrous part of temporal bone

 

Eustachain Tube conx w/ nasopharynx - allows pressure equalization b/w inner ear & environment

Term

 

Auditory Ossicles

Definition

malleus, incus, stapes

 

solid conducting medium

 

narrowing bones amplify vibrations X20

Term

 

Ear Muscles

Definition

Tensor Tympani - malleus

Stapedius - stapes

 

reflexively ctrx in response to very loud noises

this immobilizes ossicles to protect inner ear

ie flashbang

Term

 

Fenestras

Definition

divide middle and inner ear

 

F. vestibuli: oval - covered by foot of stapes.

transfers vibrations to vestibular paralymph.

 

F. cochlea: round - second tympanic membrane

dampens vibrations at the end of the scala tympani

Term

 

Periotic Labyrinth

Definition

maze of channels w/n petrous part of tb = inner ear

 

bony labyrinth = structure

membranous labyrinth = organs within

 

space bw bonyL and memL filled w paralymph

fluid wn memL is endolymph

 

consists of: semicircular canals, vestibule, cochlea

Term

 

Semicircular Canals

Definition

membranous labyrinth within

 

3 ducts = superior, posterior, lateral

 

rcpt for rotational head accel

Term

 

Vestibule

Definition

contains fenestras

 

membranous labyrinth = saccule & utricle

 

rcpts for elevation/linear head mvt

Term

 

Cochlea

Definition

scala vestibuli: base = oval window - filled w/ paralymph

 

scala tympani: base = round window - filled w/ paralymph

 

(these connect at cochlear apex/helicotrema)

 

cochlear duct: memL filled w/ endolymph.
                    contains hearing rcpts on organ of corti

Term

 

Cochlear Xsec

Definition
  • scala vestibuli
  • scala tympani
  • cochlear duct
  • vestibular membrane
  • basilar membrane
  • tectorial membrane
  • organ of corti
  • sens fibs to CN8
Term

 

Sound Waves

Definition

pressure waves caused by moving/vibrating objects

 

radiate in all dirx from source

 

must be transmitted thru medium.

denser medium = better conduction

Term

 

Sound Wave Characteristics

Definition

Wavelength: distance bw crests
gives frequency in cycle/second
measured in Hz

determines pitch

 

Amplitude: height of wave fr. baseline

measured in Db

determines volume

Term

 

Human Ranges

Definition

Hz: 20-20,000

whales lower, dogs&bats higher

 

Db: 0+ - scale is exponential

chronic exposure to +60-70 Db = permanent hearing loss

Term

 

Sound Wave Sensing

Definition
  • airborn SW strike tympanum
  • causes vibrations of minute diplacement
    (about an atomic diameter)
  • vibes pass thru auditory ossicles
    which conduct and amplify
  • foot of stapes vibrates in oval window
  • transmits vibes to paralymph of scala vestibuli
Term

 

Inner Ear Sensation

Definition
  • vib. in paralymph of scala vestibuli cause vestibular memb. to vib.
  • vest. mem. causes basilar mem. to vib
  • hair cells on organ of corti strike tectorial mem above
  • this bends sensory hairs
  • bending hairs causes hypopolarization
  • towards threshold
  • hits= AP
  • AP= sensory impulse to CNS
Term

 

Cochlear Sensation Diagram

Definition
  • external acoutic meatus
  • tympanum
  • eustachain tube
  • ossicles
  • oval window
  • scala vestibuli
  • helicotrema
  • scala tympani
  • round window
  • vestibular membrane
  • basilar membrane
  • tectorial membrane
  • hair cells on organ of corti
Term

 

Cochlear Frequency Sensation

Definition

first 1/3 = 20,000 - 1,500 Hz

 

second 1/3 = 1,500 - 500 Hz

 

third 1/3 = 500 - 20 Hz

Term

 

Equilibrium

Definition

rcpts are hair cells similar to organ of corti

2 sites:

  • ampullae: semicircular ducts - head rotational accel
  • maculae: floor of saccule & utricle - head accel/elev
Term

 

Sensory Hairs

Definition

modified cilia

 

kinocilium

stereocilia

 

towards kino=stimulation

away from kino=inhibition

Term

 

Maculae

Definition

hair cells in saccule & utricle in patches on floor

imbedded in gelatinous substance (otolithic membrane)
w/ CaCO3 crystals (otoliths)

otoliths add mass & amplify inertial force
so hairs bend easier

hair beinding causes hypopolarization
which triggers impulse

Term

 

Ampullae

Definition

located on cristae ampullaris

 

head rotation pushes cupula in opp dirx

 

bends hairs causing hypopol. & sens. imp.

Term

 

Endocrine

Definition

funct: chemical reg of body

 


hormones typically secreted by specific tissues
H circulates thru blood


only specific target tissues elsewhere in body respond

Term

Chemical Classes of H

 

SAPGP

 

Steroids

Definition

cholesterol derivative

nonpolar hydrophobic

require carrier proteins (fr. liver)

 

ie estrogen / cortisol

Term

Chemical Classes of H

 

SAPGP

 

Amino Acid Derivatives

Definition

Catecholamines: ie norepi, epi, dopamine

freely soluble

 

Primary Thyroid H: insoluble. requires carrier proteins fr thyroid such as thyroglobulin.

 

Term

Chemical Classes of H

 

SAPGP

 

Polypeptides

Definition

ie insulin/glucagon, ADH, oxytocin

 

 

digestible so no PO

 

 

Term

Chemical Classes of H

 

SAPGP

 

Glycoproteins

Definition

proteins & carbs

 

ie TSH FSH LH

 

digestible so not PO

Term

Chemical Classes of H

 

SAPGP

 

Prostoglandins

Definition

fatty acid derivatives w/ H like axn

 

nonpolar hydrophobic carrier protein

 

produced by many tissues

 

primarily affx smooth musc ie thromboxane A (vasoX)

 

ie these in prostate are in semen & cause ctrx of vaginal and uterine musc to facilitate fertilization

Term

 

Hormone Activation

 

Pro vs Pre

Definition

Effective/Active form is often derived fr. a less active precursor

 

Prohormone: converted to active BEFORE secretion.  ie proinsulin to insulin. not usually found in sig amts in blood. elevation suggests pathological process ie severe pancreatitits, pancreatic cancer.

 

Prehormone: converted AT TARGET ie. T4 to T3

 normally found in blood.

 

 

Term

 

Hormone Inactivation

Definition

hs have short 1/2 life in circulation

 

usually a few hrs

 

any excess quickly degraded by liver

 

primary determinant of H levels is secretion rate

Term
Concentration Dependence
Definition

conc levels affx axn - ie estrogen

 

low=inital release of FSH & LH @ beginning of menstrual cycle causes ovary follicle to enlarge

 

mid=sudden spike in FSH & LH that triggers ovulation

 

high= inhibit FSH & LH release which inhibs cycle and prevent spontaneous abortion until partruition.

 

ie oral contraceptives

Term
"Normal" vs "Abnormal" Responses
Definition

NR: seen at physiological ranges of concentration

 

AR:seen at pharmacological ranges of conc.

ie prolonged corticosteroid use can lead to
CT breakdown & demineralization of bones

 

Term

 

Down Regulation

Definition

from prolonged H use

 

many deleterious effx

 

ie long term anabolic steroid use turns user into a chemical eunuch b/c body lowers natural H production
and lowers cellular reception and target tissues stop responding

Term
Hormone Interaction
Definition

Permissive: axn of 1 H promotes another

ie thyroxine inc. metabolism & inc. rate of protein synthesis which is done by hGH

 

Synergistic: 2+ hormones necessary for specific response

ie testosterone + FSH = normal sperm formation

 

Antagonistic: H w/ opposing axns

ie insulin vs glucagon

 

Term
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Definition

H circ thru body but only specific cells resp

cells must have rcpt for particular H

 

Membrane: catecholamine, polypeptide,glycoproteins

 

Cytoplasm: steroids

 

Nucleus: t3/t4

Term
Steroid & Thyroid Cellular Reception
Definition

both nonpolar/hydrophobic/require carrier protein

 

when target cell is reached, they dissoc fr carrier & diffuse across mem into cell

 

S: bind to cytoplasmic rcpt protein in target cell

rcpt/H complex then enters nucleus

binds to regulatory sites on chroms

modify gene activity

 

T: bind to cytoplasmic carrier. xport to nucleus

releases into nucleus

binds to nuclear rcpt on chroms

activates specific genes.

Term
Membrane Rcpt
Definition

polypeptides, glycoproteins, catecholamines

 

dont enter target

bind to rcpt

triggers activation of 2nd messenger

2m is responsible for axn attributed to H w/n target cell

Term

Hormone Action

 

Epinephrine

Definition

adenyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP

stimulates inactive protein kinases to activate

(this affx cell metabolism wn character of H)

 

cAMP deactivates after use by phosphodiesterase

 

other H 2m: cGMP, calmodulin

Term
Phosphodiesterase
Definition

deactivates 2m

PDE inhibitor use can indirectly amplify epi effx by prolonging 2m life

ie caffine

ie theophylline - aids bronchoO
                       used as supplement Tx to asthma

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