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Blood - Chapter 16
Blood
115
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
06/15/2008

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Term
Colloid
Definition
Has the ability to change viscosity.
Term
Suspension
Definition
Has the ability to settle out. Blood is a suspension.
Term
Intracellular Fluids
Definition
Cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
Term
Extracellular Fluid
Definition
Interstitial fluid; fluids contained in major organs.
Term
Cardiovascular System Overview:
Definition
Heart -> arteries -> arterioles ->capillaries ->venules -> veins -> heart.
Term
Blood is considered what kind of tissue?
Definition
Fluid connective tissue.
Term
Blood has two main parts:
Definition
A Matrix which is plasma.
And fibers which are usually collagen and elastin fibers that are only evident when we clot.
Term
Blood Matrix
Definition
Is made up of formed elements suspended in plasma.
Term
Hematocrit
Definition
Diagnostic tool to measure the percentage of RBCs in whole blood.
Term
Blood's physical characteristics:
Definition
Can be bright red or dark red,
sticky,
salty,
metallic taste from iron,
more dense than water,
5x more viscous than water.
Term
Blood pH
Definition

7.35-7.45

slightly alkaline

Term
Blood temperature
Definition
100.4 F
38 C
Term
Total volume in women
in men:
Definition
women - 4-5 L
men - 5-6 L
Term
3 Main functions of blood
Definition
Distribution,
regulation,
protection
Term
4 aspects of distribution
Definition

transports:

-O2 from lungs into tissues,
-wastes from cells .
-Nutrients from digestive system to cells
-antibodies and immune system components

Term
3 Aspects of Regulation
Definition

-Maintains appropriate and uniform temperature,

appropriate and stable pH (with buffers like HCO3-),

and maintains appropriate fluid volume. 

Term
2 Aspects of Protection 
Definition
Prevents flood loss,
Prevents infection
Term
Blood plasma is ___ water
Definition
~90%
Term
Blood plasma is made up of 2 things:
Definition
-Water and over 100+ solutes
Term
What are the most abundant solutes?
Definition
Plasma proteins
Term
Most plasma proteins are produced by the:
Definition
liver
Term
These plasma proteins are not used as
Definition
Nutrients.
Term
The most common protein in blood is:
Definition
Albumin.
Term
Albumin makes up ___ of the circulating population.
Definition
60%
Term
3 Functions of Albumin
Definition
-Carrier protein,
-Buffer,
-Contributes to osmotic pressure of blood.
Term
Formed elements are generated
Definition
by hematopoetic tissues outside of the blood stream such as red bone marrow.
Term
Formed elements make up ~___% of blood volume.
Plasma makes up the rest:
Definition
45%
Plasma - 55%
Term
Men have more ___ than women
Definition
RBCs
Term
RBC's 4 physical characteristics
Definition
-bi-concave disk.
-flexible
-7.5 Microns
-Mature cells are anucleuate.
Term
RBC's function
Definition
Gas transport: transport O2 from lungs and 20% of CO2 back to the lungs.
Term
RBCs biconcave shape:
Definition
Gives high surface area for hemoglobin.
Term
97% of the weight of a RBC is
Definition
hemoglobin
Term
Spectrin
Definition
Composes elastic cytoskeleton of RBC-> Flexibility in small diameter capullaries.
Term
RBCs get their energy from:
Definition
glycolysis-anerobic so it uses no transported O2
Term
Hemoglobin
Definition
Heme - contains iron
Globin - protein part.
Term
Globin is made up of 4
Definition

subunits, Alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, beta 2.

=quaternary structure. 

Term
Each hemoglobin transports ___ O2 molecules.
Definition
4.
Term
Oxyhemoglobin
Definition
In the lungs, O2 binds to heme/Fe.
-3D shape and is bright red.
Term
Deoxyhemoglobin
Definition
O2 leaves Fe and diffuses into other tissues
-Dark red & unique 3D shape.
Term
Carbaminohemoglobin
Definition
Forms more readily when hemoglobin is reduced.
Term
Hematopoiesis
Definition
Formation of blood cells.
Term
Hematapoiesis occurs:
Definition
in red bone marrow.
-produces 1 oz blood a day. (100 billion new cells)
Term
Hematopoietic stem cells
Definition
Progenitors of all formed elements.
Term
Erythopoiesis
Definition
Formation of RBCs. Takes 15 days
Term
Erythropoiesis process:
Definition

-hemoblast ->proerythroblast,
(has many ribosomes)
-early erythroblast ->late errythroblast ->normoblast (here is where organelles and nuclei are rejected)

-reticulocytes (1-2% of RBC) - degrade reamining organelles and turn into...!
!erythrocytes!

Term
____ RBCs are produced per second by healthy people.
Definition
2 million.
Term
What is a glycoprotein hormone secreted from the ____ which helps erythropoiesis.
-What levels monitor the secretion of this hormone?
Definition
-erythropoietin (EPO)
-Kidneys and liver
-[O2]
Term
EPO is a ____ feedback system
Definition
negative
Term
Low O2 levels result from 4 things:
Definition

-Insufficient RBC # (hemorrhage or excessive destruction)
-Insufficient Hbn per RBC.

-Reduced availability of O2 (altitude)

-Increased demand for O2 (aerobic exercise)

Term
Why do males have more RBCs?
Definition
-Testosterone stimulates renal production of EPO.
-Estrogen does not.
Term
RBCs reuire adequate supplies of nutrients and structural materials such as:
(4)
Definition

-Vitamin B 12 and folic acid which affect DNA synthesis and haev a profound impact on dividing cells.
-Fe

-Amino Acids 

Term
65% of ___ is bound to hemoglobin
Definition
Fe
Term
Free iron is
Definition
toxic.
Term
Iron is bound to ____ and stored in ______
Definition
Iron is bound to ferritin and hemosiderin and stored in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow cells.
Term
Fe is transported by blood in the transport protein 
Definition
transferrin
Term
Women lose more iron (1.7 mg) than men (.9 mg) a day.
Definition
:)
Term
RBC life span
Definition
100-120 days.
Term
RBC dies by
Definition
-becoming fragile and rigid. Hbn beings to degrade and can become trapped inside of the spleen.
-macrophages can phagocytize these dying RBCs.
Term
The breakdown of Hbn:
Definition
-heme is cleaved from globin.
-Fe in heme is bound to ferritin and hemosiderin and stored in these protein complexes.
-Heme remainder is made into bilirubin (yellow) which is bound to albumin in the blood.
-Bilirubin is transported to the liver where it is secreted in bile.
-In the intestine, bilirubin is metabolized into feces (stercobilin)
-Globin is decomposed into its amino acids.
Term

Anemia
-What is it?

-What are the symptoms? 

Definition
The reduced ability of blood to carry O2.
-fatigue, shortness of braeth, chill
Term
3 Main causes of anemia:
Definition
-Not enough RBCs
-Decreased Hbn content in RBCs
-Abnormally configured Hbn.
Term
3 Types of anemia that have insufficient numbers of RBCs.
Definition
-Hemorrhagic anemia,
hemolytic anemia,
aplastic anemia.
Term
Hemorrhagic Anemia
Definition
Significant blood loss. Can be treated by blood replacement.
Term
Hemolytic Anemia:
Definition
RBCs lyse prematurely from hemoglobin anomalies, transfusion mismatch, or bacterial and parasitic infections.
Term
Aplastic Anemia
Definition
Inhibition or destruction of red bone marrow by bacterial toxins, drugs, radiation.
-Treatment: Blood replacement
Term
2 ways decreased hemoglobin content in RBCs cause anemia:
Definition
iron-deficiency anemia,
pernicious anemia.
Term
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Definition
Inadequate Fe consumption or absorption
RBCs become pale and small (MICROCYTES)
Treatment: Fe supplements and transfusions.
Term
Pernicious Anemia
Definition
Vitamin B12 deficiency (or inadequate IF)
-RBCs become large and pale, and sometimes keep their nucleus.
Treatment: IM injectsions of B12.
Term
2 ways people can have abnormall configured hbn.
Definition
thalassemias,
sickle-cell anemia
Term
Thalassemias
Definition
-one globin chain is absent or deformed.
-typical for people of north central Mediterranean descent. (Italians and Greeks).
Term
Sickle-cell Anemia
Definition

-Most common among black peoples.
-In low [O2] conditions, beta chains link abnormally, causing a shape change in hemoglobin and a shape change in the RBCs.
-these deformed RBCs rupture easily and clog pathways.

-painful
-Heterozygos people can surgive malaria

Term
Polychthemia
Definition
Abnormal excess of RBCs causing increased blood viscosity.
Term
Polycythemia Vera
Definition

-Secondary to bone marrow cancer.

Hematocrit and blood volume rise and can often impair circulation. 

Term
Secondary Polycythemia
Definition

-Result of low [O2]

-High RBC count, response to living at high altitude. 

Term
Blood Doping
Definition

-Artificially induced polycythemia,
removing and injecting RBCs

-Injecting RPO. 

Term
Leukocytes make up ___ of blood volume:
Definition
less than 1%.
Term
Diapedesis
Definition
Migration of WBCs into and out of the circulatory system.
Term
WBCs move by:
Definition
amoeboid motion.
Term
WBCs are ___ which means they can follow chemical concentration gradient to targets ( chemical signals)
Definition
positively chemotactic.
Term
WBC's main functions is the assist in
Definition
inflammatory response and immune response.
Term
Infections are indicated by
Definition
WBC count over 11,000/mm cubed.
Term
Granulocytes
Definition
-neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils,
spherical shape,
lobed nucleis,
granules,
all are phagocytes to some degree.
Term
Neutrophils
Definition
-Most numerous leukocytes.
-lilac stain - neutral.
-3-6 lobes for nuclei,
attracted to inflammed tissues and are active phagocytes there.
-especially attracted to bacteria and some fungi.
Term
Respiratory Burst
Definition
O2 is metabolized to produce potent bacteria killing compounds.
-number of neutrophils increases in response to microbialinfection.
Term
Eosinophils
Definition
21-24% WBCs
-red/pink granules
-These granules lack enzymes to digest bacteria.
-Telephone receiver/dumb bell nuclei
-Helps with worms and associated with allergic reactions.
Term
Basophils
Definition

Rarest WBC

-with histamines
U or S shaped with 2-3 constrictions.
-simular to mast cells found in other connective tissue.

Term
Histamine
Definition
vasodilating inflammatory conpound that attracts other WBCs.
Term
Agranulocytes
Definition
lymphocytes and monocytes
-spherical nuclei or kidney shaped.
-granules not obvious.
Term
Lymphocytes
Definition

-2nd most numerous WBC (~35%)

-Dark, spherical nucleus.
-Most are outside of blood system.

T and B lymphocytes
 

Term
T Lymphocyte
Definition
active against viruses and tumors
Term
B Lymphocytes
Definition
Give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies.
Term
Monocytes
Definition
3-7% WBCs,
largest,
pale blue cytoplasm,
U or kidney shaped nucleus,
Differentiate into macrophages in tissues.
Term
Macrophages
Definition
Antiviral & Anti-intracellular bacterial agents.
-Activate other lymphocytes to mount immune response.
-Increase in # in response to chronic infections.
Term
Leukopoiesis
Definition
-Process is stimulated by glycoprotein hormones or cytokines.
-There are 2 types of cytokines: interleukins and colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
-prompt WBC precursors to divide and mature.
-Enhance functional potency of mature WBCs,
-Produced by macrophages and T lymphocytes.
Term
Hemocytoblasts ->_____ & ______ stem cells
Definition
lymphoid (evolve into lymphocytes) and meyloid (evolve into RBCs, WBCs, and platelets) stem cells.
Term
Distinctive granules of granulocytes appear at the ___ stage.
-Nuclei begin to transform at the ___ stage.
Definition
-myelocyte
-band cell
Term
Life span of normal granulocyte:
Definition
.5-9 days
b/c "die in combat"
Term
Leukopenia
Definition
-Abnormal WBC count
-drug induced (glucocorticoids and anti-cancer agents)
Term
Leukemia
Definition

-cancerous condition which overproduction of WBC occurs.
-Impairs marrow function and crowds out other cells types.

-Can lead to anemia and bleeding disorder.
-Treatment: irradiation, antileukemic drugs, and bone marrow transplants.

Term
Infectious mononucleosis
Definition

"kissing disease"

-highly contageous viral disease
-Epstein-Barr virus -> increased number of agranulocytes, many atypical.
-fatigue, chronic sore throat, low fever,
Treatment - rest for a few weeks.

Term
Platelets
Definition
Anucleate, degenerate in ~ 10 days.
-formation regulated from thrombopoetin released from liver.
Term
Megakaryocytes
Definition
-dispatch cytoplasmic extensions through sinusoid walls into capillaries -> extensions rupture, liberating platelets.
Term
3 phases of hemostasis
Definition

-vascular spasms

-platelet plug formation

-coagulation

Term
Vascular spasms
Definition

-Immediate vasoconstriction of vessel.

-Endothelial cells & platelets release substances ..
-Most effective with small diameter vessels
-Provides time for platelet plug formation.

Term
Platelet Plug formation
Definition
-Platelets form temporary seal in vessel wall.
-When endothelium is injured and collagen fibers are exposed, platelets swell and form spiked appendages, become sticky, and adhere to collagen.
-When platelets attach, their granules lyse and it initiates a positive feedback mechanism. It releases other contents (degranulation)
-Serotonin is realeased to enhance vascular spasms.
-ADP is released to attract other platelets and induce content release.
-Thromboxane A2 is a short-lived prostaglandin derivative which stimuloates vascular spasm and platelet attractions.
Term
Platelet plug forms within
Definition
a minute and reduces further bleeding.
Term
PGI2
Definition
a prostaglandin produced by vessel endothelium which limits the plug to a certain area.
Term
Platelet plugs are loosely knit and are eventually reinforced by __ threads
Definition
fibrin.
Term
Coagulation
Definition
Transforms blood from a liquid to a gel.
-clotting factors (Procoagulants) enhance clotting
-Most are plasma proteins that inactively circulate until mobilized.
-Anticoagulants are factors that inhibit clotting.
Term
Final 3 cirital steps are:
Definition
1. Prothrombin activator formation (requires Ca2+)
2. Conversion of Prothrombin -> thrombin
3. catalysis of fibrin mesh formation
Term
Prothromin activator formation
Definition
1. Prothrombin activator formation (requires Ca2+)
-Intrinsic pathway - slower, all ingredients are in the blood.
-Extrinsic pathway - faster, Tissue factor is released by injured cells which shortcuts several steps.
-Both pathways cascade towards convergence at factor X.
-Factor X complexes with Ca2_, TF(Tissue factor) and factor V make prothrombin activator.
-clot forms after this.
Term
-Conversion of prothrombin -> Thrombin
Definition
:)
Term
Catalysis of fibrin mesh formation
Definition
-Thrombin catalysis the polymerization of fibrinogen to fibrin.
-Thrombin with Ca2+ activates factor VIII (Fibrin stabilizing factor)
-Fibrin sticks polatelets together, forming a web.
Term
Clot Retraction and Repair
Definition
Platelets contain actin and myosin (retractile proteins)
-Contraction squeezes serum from mass and consolidates clot.
Term
Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF)
Definition
-Released during degranulation simulates smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to begin tissue repair.
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