1. government intervention to improve the status of racial minorities (an action of policy favoring those who tend to suffer from discrimination, especially in relation to employment or education)

1. created to oppose the Knights of Labor.  It dominated the labor scene and was discriminatory and exclusive in membership
2. The craft unions of skilled workers never accepted the principles/leadership of the Knights of Labor and formed this group in 1881. Dominant force in organized labor. Organized along craft lines, placing a premium on skilled labor that marked the federation as exclusive and discriminatory. Became a bastion in the development and maintenance of racism by 1900.

1. illiteracy made it difficult to pursue their trades independently. Formerly enslaved blacks demonstrating entrepreneurship and innovativeness in carving out a space for themselves/contributing to economic growth in the post-Civil War period.

1. Treats racial identity as a form of individual and group property having income and wealth-generating characteristics; used to interpret contemporary trends in employment, residential segregation, and incarceration rates

1. an independent black union created  to deal with low wages, and substandard working conditions of its members including long hours, lack of rest, job insecurity.  It was created by A. Philip Randolph and several Pullman porters

1. paid a cash rental for the use of land; owned their own equipment and made their own decisions about growing and marketing crops; least common tpe of black agricultural worker

1. outlawed major forms of discrimination against blacks and women including segregation in the workplace, schools, and public.
2. affected USWA’s promotion of fair employement practices and other civil rights initiatives

1. Class-based approach to racism that considers central movements and issues directly related to class struggle between the working and capitalist class.

1. According to Friedman, the forces of competition in a capitalist economy will eliminate discrimination within the competitive firm

o, enabled planters to expand the production of cotton beyond GA and Carolinas. It increased the demand for enslaved blacks to produce cotton while the Atlantic slave trade had been abolished, leading to a back market. There was a large-scale re-location of blacks and breeding efforts. From 300,000 to 2 million bales within 30 years.

1. collecative racial identity is an “EXTERNALITY “ that has a positive value for those who identify with it or derive its benefits unconsciously;
2. but but such an identity is assessed negatively by those who identify or identify with a different racial-cultural identity or find the cultural production process distasteful

1. Conservatives say the "black underclass" culture reproduces dysfunctional behavior like living for immediate gratification instead of future planning, surviving on welfare rather than accepting a job, and bearing and raising children w/o husband unmarried. Major obstacle to black econ. progress b/c it discourages AAs from investing time/money required to increase their human capital. Black cultural, family, and community values discourage education and HC attainment before entering labor market and encourage bad work habits after employment. Conservative reason for persistent black-white income differentials.

1. Self-reinforcing conditions keep blacks at the bottom of econ ladder. Whites believe blacks inferior-->limit black access to education/employment. -->low productivity among blacks-->justifies and reinforces process of their exclusion form jobs/opportunities. Faced w/several disadvantages, blacks won't be motivated as a group and will develop dysfunctional behaviors. These outcomes reinforce one another--> vicious cycle of poverty called the _______. It has negative effects on several generations and is stronger than the countervailing market forces that act to reduce discriminatory outcomes.

1. Tenants in debt to their landlords could be prevented from moving away until they paid their debts. Made effective through gentlemen's agreements among landlords. They would accept tenants from other planters if the move was approved by the present landlord. Only escape was to flee community since dishonest landowners could readily keep tenants in debt

1. April 1919 they announced 99% of Chicago's black veterans were still unemployed, with little prospect of work in the immediate future. Group created to improve relations between black workers and organized labor and to enhance the position of AAs with the fed gov't. Through US DOL, this group was created. It intended to keep the Secretary of Labor informed on conditions among AA workers, devise methods to end difficulties caused by racial discrimination, and to strengthen the participation of blacks in war industries.

1. Arrived on the slave trade scene in 17th Century and posed a serious threat to the Portuguese dominance of the slave coast w/ huge navy, capital and shipping resources;The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by the merchants. 

1. Class-based approach to racism where the economy determines the politics, culture, consciousness, and struggles of a society; it minimizes the autonomous role of culture and race. See Class reductionism.

1. Movement during the late 1870s that prompted two hundred thousand blacks to migrate form the South to the Midwest. Led to the establishment of all-black towns, like Boley, Oklahoma.

1. A system of work in which Africans were constantly monitored by an overseer, endured lashings, and dealt with more intensity. Ex.: tobacco production

1. When southern blacks migrated to the North and other regions for better economic opportunities.

1. The belief that blacks descended from Ham, the accused son of Noah, and their savagery and barbarianism placed them beyond the pale of civilization.  It  was used as a justification for slavery.

1. slaves were agricultural laborers, unskilled, or _____. The uppity light-skinned slaves that worked as maids, servants, cooks, etc.

1. human skills and knowledge of enslaved Africans, in addition to their labor. Exploitation of enslaved blacks was not restricted to physical labor.

1. A new federation of unions that actively recruited black workers.  It was supported by Frederick Douglas and T. Thomas Fortune.  It sought to create solidarity among all classes of workers.

1. Racial economic equality results from forces beyond control of the individual

1. when machinery was used to assist the agriculture work that slaves carried out.  It reduced the need for workers.  The mechanization of cotton was a 3 stage process.

1. Mercantilist intellectuals identified two goals for national policy: military power and economic wealth. Economic wealth was associated with the expansion of manufacturing activities and the growth of exports of manufactured goods. Thinkers generally embraced the idea that if their nation was to improve its position in either of these two areas-that is, become stronger militarily or accumulate greater national wealth—other countries would have to become weaker or poorer. Saw international arena as one that operated under the principle of what political scientists call a zero-sum game. Saw all nations as fundamentally in conflict with one another. Slavery played a central role in a strategy based on mercantilist goals because of the importance attributed to the development of colonial possessions.
2. Helps understand the motives behind Europeans’ participation in the enslavement of Africans and informed thinking of European elites who designed national policies for their countries throughout the Atlantic slave trade; 2 Main Goals for National Policy: 1. Military power and 2. Economic Wealth (expansion/exportation of manu. Goods); Idea: If one country is to improve in those two areas then other countries would have to become weaker/poorer and saw all nations as in conflict with another because achievement was made through domination

1. division of the NAACP created to give blacks legal defense during the Civil Rights period. The NAACP realized that although grassroots mobilization would provide agitation, it would not reverse laws so the Legal Defense Fund sought to change segregation through the courts. They also brought up lawsuits against people violating civil rights. One of the more notable cases was Brown v. Board of Education.

1. Shared view that blacks needed work to survive, but some leaders also recognized the right of workers to organize and bargain collectively. 1919 first time discussed labor problems in the convention. In 1924 called on white unions to stop bluffing. Warned that if steps weren’t taken to ease discrimination, the “position gained by organized labor in this country is threatened with irreparable loss”

1. Founded in 1911 specifically to ease the transition of blacks from rural to urban life, at first counseled a close relationship between blacks and employers. The league view was that the immediate economic need of newly urbanized blacks was to find jobs. In 1919 advised blacks that they should seek membership in unions, but when not possible they should band together to bargain with employers and organized labor alike.

1. 1896 Supreme Court decision, which ruled that segregation was constitutional, and was the legal foundation for Jim Crow.

1. a giant corporation in the railroad industry that hired black workers as porters.  Porters were usually former slaves.  They were required to stow passengers’ baggage as well as serve them.  It was founded by George M. Pullman.

1. 1672 when it began and backed by the Duke of York (late King James II), after the financial success of sugarcane in Barbados called England to begin transporting slaves from Africa; Given a monopoly of the English trade b/ a certain region on the West Coast of Africa for a thousand years; Dutch opposed the English competition and they fought an undeclared war with the Brits winning; Delivered 90,000 slaves to W. Africa; 1731 – Abandoned the slave trade after problems with merchants/parliament, specializing only in the ivory/gold dust
2. Britannica Encyclopedia: “A society of merchants, established by King Charles II for trading to Africa; which trade is now laid open to all his majesty’s subjects, paying 10 per cent, for maintaining the forts”

1. The cornerstone of African slave trade and involved the barter of manufactured goods for african slaves.
2. Rum was shipped from East Coast of America to West Africa to trade for slaves which were shipped to West Indies and sold for Molasses which was carried to East Coast to be disstilled into Rum

1. had nothing to offer but own labor. Provided with mules and equipment to raise a cotton crop, and in return had to pay, as rent, about ½ of cotton crop. Had to pay for own seed, fertilizer, and food supplies that were provided by the landowner. Provided with 2 to 3 room wooden shack and could often raise vegetable gardens for personal use.

1. A feature of how racism supports capitalism; Superexploitation is exemplified in the difference between black workers and the superprofits of capital; (Ex.) if the avg. wage of white workers is $13/hr and black workers $9/hr then $4/hr measures the superexploitation of black workers and the superprofits of the employer

1. A system of slavery that required slaves to reach certain quotas in performing tasks. it provided slaves with greater latitude in their lives and allowed the opportunity for time to cultivate their own crops.   
2. Allowed slaves to set their own pace for getting work done

1. newspaper distributed by Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters taht expressed their grievances and desires as workers; carried leaflets and confidential common info among the brotherhood operating in Chicago
2. A. Phillip Randolph

1. A loose organization of black radicals under the leadership of W.E.B. DuBois, discussed economic conditions of blacks at its meeting in Boston in 1907 and resoled that the interests of black and white workers were identical. The movement reportedly assured blacks that “the cause of labor is the cause of black men, and the black man’s case is labor’s own’

1. Booker T. Washington, weighed heavily on black thought. Washington had convinced a whole generation of blacks that their best interest and hope for advancement lay in the Tuskegee philosophy-that is, working hard and amassing capital. The Tuskegee philosophy ha no place in its teaching s for organized labor, and Washington and his flowers advise blacks to line up with the great captains of industry.

1. refers to the result of exploitation of Africa and slaves being taken by European colonial nations from areas that were the most politically underdeveloped.  
2. demonstrates how African economic development was stunted by the impact of the slave trade on the continent
3. 
   

1. The wealth gap between African countries and all other that were formed developed under European occupation, settlement and subsequent political domination is explained by; Long-term effects of the Atlantic slave trade that transported enslaved Africans to the New World b/ 16th and 19th centuries; African economic development was stunted by the impact of the slave trade on the continent; Profits generated by the slave trade and by plantation slavery provided the fuel for a continuing and self-perpetuating pattern of uneven development that will, in the absence of radical interventions, victimize people of African descent throughout the 21st century

Committee/Department

1. centered on the negotiation of broad nondiscrimination clauses in all contracts
2. had issues working with Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
3. Considered a FAILURE, but helped later with insights for the future.