Term
| What is the primary function of the endocrine system? |
|
Definition
| Maintains homeostasis and affects metabolism, growth and reproduction |
|
|
Term
| Inputs that act directly on endocrine gland cells (3) |
|
Definition
| Ion or nutrient concentration, neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| Name the three kind of peptide hormones |
|
Definition
Peptides (short chains of amino acids)
ex: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Proteins (long amino acid chains)
ex: parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Glycoproteins (protein + carbohydrate)
ex: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
amino acid derivative formed from tyrosine
ex: epinephrine, norepinephrine; dopamine |
|
|
Term
| What are the four types of hydrophilic hormones? (think glucagon) |
|
Definition
Peptide Hormones
-Peptides
-Proteins
-Glycoproteins |
|
|
Term
| Two types of hydrophobic hormones |
|
Definition
Thyroid hormones (amino acid derivatives made from two tyrosines; contain iodine)
ex. T3 and T4
Steroids (synthesized from cholesterol; complex rings of carbon and hydrogen)
ex: estrogen, testosterone, cortisol |
|
|
Term
| Five steps of hydrophobic hormone action |
|
Definition
diffuse through the cell membrane
bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus
alters mRNA synthesis (transcription)
mRNA production alters protein synthesis (translation)
proteins directly affect cell function |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 general primary features of the endocrine system? |
|
Definition
1. effectors are stimulated using hormones rather than neurotransmitters
2. may function separately or together with the nervous system
3. hormones are secreted by endocrine glands into blood
4. endocrine tissues may be organized into glands or found within organs as groups of cells
5. target tissues are defined by presence of receptors
(also Homeostatic controls are always negative) |
|
|
Term
| Mode of Action of Hydrophobic Hormones (6) |
|
Definition
1. diffuse through the cell membrane
2. bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus
3. alters mRNA synthesis (transcription)
4. mRNA production alters protein synthesis (translation)
5. proteins directly affect cell function
Intensity of response is proportional to amount of hormone bound by receptor. Effects are produced relatively slowly. |
|
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Term
| Mode of Action of Hydrophilic Hormones (4) |
|
Definition
1. bind to receptors in the cell membrane
2. activate second messengers within the cell
ex: adenylate cyclase/camp
3. types of actions: activate or inhibit enzymes
regulate membrane transport
Mode of action often allows many related changes to be produced in a cell by the same hormone (e.g. activation of some enzymes and inhibition of others). Effects are produced relatively quickly. |
|
|
Term
| Control of the endocrine system by the nervous system (4 different cases) |
|
Definition
Control of Anterior Pituitary by neurohormones released by the hypothalamus (HTM)
posterior pituitary hormones released by direct neural stimulation
adrenal medulla releases hormones in response to direct stimulation by preganglionic sympathetic neurons
secretion of some hormones may be stimulated or inhibited by sympathetic/parasympathetic stimulation of endocrine glands (ex. pancreas) |
|
|
Term
| What two hormones does the posterior pituitary gland secrete? |
|
Definition
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) promotes water retention by kidneys. Controlled by the hypothalamus in response to blood osmolarity. |
|
|
Term
| Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) |
|
Definition
| stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) Delivers Nutrients, and Removes Cellular Waste Products
2) Delivers Hormones
3) Defends Against Disease
4) Regulates Tissue pH
5) Maintains Tissue Fluid and Electrolyte Balance |
|
|
Term
| What is the composition of blood? |
|
Definition
55% Fluid: Plasma
92% Water
7% Proteins
1% Electrolytes, Nutrients
38-48% red blood cells
less than 1% white blood cells |
|
|
Term
| Relate the structure of the red blood cell to its function. |
|
Definition
Biconcave for more surface area which means it can transfer oxygen and CO2 quickly.
They are flexible so they can go through veins and arteries quickly.
(really small and round)
Contain hemoglobin for oxygen and CO2 transport. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
They are made in the bone marrow and differentiate into red blood cells or white blood cells.
The starting stem cell in red bone marrow. |
|
|
Term
| What are the three primary functions of the lymphatic system? |
|
Definition
Aids in regulation of tissue fluid balance
Transports dietary fats
Accessory to immune response |
|
|
Term
| Describe how red blood cell formation is homeostatically controlled |
|
Definition
| When oxygen levels in the blood are low, the kidney will release erythropoietin which stimulates bone marrow to make RBC. |
|
|
Term
| The concentration of nodes associated with... |
|
Definition
| Areas with a higher probability of infection |
|
|
Term
| Briefly describe the composition and function of plasma. |
|
Definition
Fluid: Plasma
92% Water
7% Proteins
1% Electrolytes, Nutrients
Function: It keeps the blood from clotting and it keeps the blood more fluid instead of jelloish. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure and function of platelets |
|
Definition
Structure: cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes. These cells are formed from hemocytoblasts.
Function: Coagulation |
|
|
Term
| Describe the three stages of hemostasis: |
|
Definition
1.) vascular spasm
2.) platelet plug formation
3.) coagulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Physical blocking of the blood, which promotes vaso-constriction. |
|
|
Term
| platelet plug formation (3) |
|
Definition
Endothelium gets damaged and exposes collagen fibers which allow the platelets to stick.
Platelets release ADP, serotonin and thromboxane which are messengers that increase vascular spasm and platelet aggregation.
To prevent platelets sticking to undamaged endothelial tissue, they secrete nitric O and prostacyclin. |
|
|
Term
| 4 different ways of controlling hormone secretion |
|
Definition
1. regulation by blood levels of minerals and ions
ex: Parathyroid Hormone by Ca+2
2. regulation by blood concentrations of organic nutrients
ex: insulin by glucose
3. regulation by another hormone
ex: T3 and T4 by pituitary TSH
4. Control by the Nervous System |
|
|
Term
Give a general overview of the clotting process (i.e. a cascade of reactions involving positive feedback that requires platelets and plasma proteins).
(about 5 different things) |
|
Definition
Collagen gets exposed in endothelium, which stops releasing nitric O, prostacyclin. This allows platelets to start sticking, which then release ADP, serotonin and thromboxane. These chemicals promote more platelets to start sticking.
Platelets have platelet factor 3 which causes activation of prothrombin activator. Prothrombin activator then catalyzes the transformation of plasma protein called prothrombin to thrombin.
Thrombin the catalyzes the transformation of fibrinogen into fibrin.
Fibrin is the component that glues the platelets together and is insoluble. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hormones produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary that target endocrine glands, causing them to then release their specific hormone. |
|
|
Term
| How are the anterior and posterior pituitary glands activated? (6) |
|
Definition
Anterior Lobe (endocrine)
contains endocrine cells that secrete tropic hormones
releasing hormones for many pituitary hormones are carried from the brain via hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal veins
Posterior Lobe (storage organ)
hormones are secreted directly by specialized neurons with axons that extend from the hypothalamus (hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract)
releases oxytocin, antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) |
|
|
Term
| Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) |
|
Definition
| Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids such as cortisol |
|
|
Term
Distinguish the intrinsic clotting mechanism from the extrinsic mechanism with regard to how they are started and indicate how the two mechanisms are related.
(2) |
|
Definition
I. Extrinsic Mechanism: Requires Tissue Factor: This skips some early steps to clott blood, it uses tissues, and not just blood factors. This one is faster, so the initial clott is made by extrinsic pathway.
II. Intrinsic Mechanism: Requires Only Factors In Blood (Activated By `Contact'): Does not have anything outside of blood that it uses to clot blood. Abnormal surface activates intrinsic pathway (exposed collagen). Vessel damage ---> exposed collagen----> contact activation
Both activate platelet plug formation. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Thyroid Releasing Hormone |
|
|
Term
| Hypothyroidism Symptoms (3) |
|
Definition
| low metabolic rate; sluggishness; abnormal sensitivity to cold |
|
|
Term
| Hyperthyroidism symptoms (3) |
|
Definition
| high metabolic rate; weight loss, protrusion of eyes |
|
|
Term
| Which hormones contain Iodine? |
|
Definition
Thyroid Hormones:
Ex: T3 & T4 |
|
|
Term
| Specifically describe the role of thrombin in blood clotting and describe the final reaction involved in clot formation. |
|
Definition
| Thrombin turns fibrinogen to fibrin which forms the mesh that catch erythrocytes. |
|
|
Term
Describe the function of anticoagulants. What are the anticoagulants?
(4) |
|
Definition
To prevent blood clotting.
Normal endothelial cell which secrete prostacyclin and nitric O.
Protein C: Plasma protein that inhibits several factors in the intrinsic pathway, comes from endothelial tissue.
Antithrombin III: Plasma Protein that inhibits unbound thrombin, comes from liver.
Heparin: Secreted by basophils and mast cells and acts to inhibit the intrinsic pathway, prevents clotts from forming. |
|
|
Term
| Draw the homeostatic control mechanism involving stress and cortisol |
|
Definition
| Stimulus - prolonged stress --> controlled variable - homeostasis --> sensor and integrating center - hypothalamus --cortisol releasing hormone-> integrating center - anterior pituitary --adrenocorticotropic hormone--> adrenal cortex releases cortisol --> effectors - liver and adipocytes --> increase blood glucose and fatty acids --> Hypothalamus registers stress levels |
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Term
| Describe the function of factors that promote fibrinolysis |
|
Definition
| endothelial tissue in the presence of a clot will secrete tissue plasminogen activator. This will activate plasminogen into plasmin which will digest fibrin. |
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|
Term
| Be able to describe the different blood types in terms of the antigens (agglutinogens) and antibodies (agglutinins) present in the blood and the effect of mixing different blood types. |
|
Definition
Type A has A proteins and B antibodies. Type B is the reverse.
Type O has antibodies but neither of the proteins.
Type AB has both types of proteins and does not have any antibodies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is (a glucocorticoid) secreted by the zona fasciculata in adrenal cortex
Cortisol secretion is controlled via the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
Stimulated by pituitary ACTH |
|
|
Term
| Cortisol functions/uses (5) |
|
Definition
increases blood glucose by stimulating production of enzymes that permit gluconeogenesis in the liver
increases lipolysis in adipose cells
stimulates breakdown of muscle proteins to mobilize amino acids
Functions as a suppressor of the immune system
May be used pharmacologically as anti-inflammatory agent |
|
|
Term
| Describe the general appearance (granular vs. agranular) of each type of white blood cell. |
|
Definition
Eosinophil: Granular with double segmented nucleus. Parasites and worms.
Neutrophil: is Granular with three or more segments. Phagocytosis.
Basophil: Granular with one large nucleus. Inflammation and anticoagulation.
Lymphocytes: Agranular with a very large nucleus. Antibodies.
Monocyte: agranular with one U shaped nucleus. Macrophages. |
|
|
Term
| Adrenal Medulla 3 General Facts |
|
Definition
Extension (substitutes for ganglion) of the sympathetic nervous system
Effects of chemical signals as hormones are generally:
1. of longer duration than that of neurotransmitters
2. activate more receptors simultaneously compared with direct neural control (effects are generally more widespread) |
|
|
Term
| 4 hormones of the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Epinephrine 80%
Norepinephrine 20% (used more often as a neurotransmitter)
Cortisol |
|
|
Term
| 4 General Effects of Cortisol |
|
Definition
1. increase heart rate and contractility
2. increase respiratory rate
3. redistribution of blood flow to muscle away from gastrointestinal tract
4. energy mobilizing effects: increase plasma glucose and fatty acids
Stimulates liver to increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Stimulates lipolysis in adipocytes |
|
|
Term
| By what means does cortisol work? |
|
Definition
| affects enzyme activity via transcription and translation |
|
|
Term
| Draw the homeostatic control mechanism involving stress and epinephrine |
|
Definition
| Stimulus - stress --> Controlled Condition - Homeostasis --> Sensor and Integrating center hypothalamus --Neural activity--> Adrenal Medulla secretes epinephrine --> effector - liver cells and adipocytes --> Increase Blood glucose and fatty acids to accommodate exercise stress --> Receptors and Integrating Center in Hypothalamus monitor stress levels |
|
|
Term
| Which endocrine organ is not effected by the nervous sysytem? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which pancreatic cells secrete insulin and which pancreatic cells secrete glucagon? |
|
Definition
Insluin: Beta cells in islets of langerhan's
Glucagon: Alpha cells in islets of langerhan's |
|
|
Term
| Name four of the functions of insulin |
|
Definition
Insulin increases the number of glucose transporters in the cell membrane (GLUT4) in adipocytes and skeletal muscle
Insulin stimulates glycogen synthesis and inhibits glycogen breakdown in liver and skeletal muscle
Insulin stimulates glycolysis in skeletal muscle and other tissues
Insulin stimulates synthesis and storage of lipids in adipose tissue and liver |
|
|
Term
| What is "Lynelle's" definition for lymph? |
|
Definition
| Blood filtrate that is identical to interstitial fluid, and also contains a large number of circulating lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells. |
|
|
Term
| What are the three lymphoid cells? |
|
Definition
| Lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and phagocytic cells |
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 lymphoid tissues and their functions? |
|
Definition
1. Bone marrow: Source of all blood cells and also the site of maturation for B lymphocytes
2. Thymus gland: Site of maturation of T lymphocytes
3. Lymph nodes: contain a high density of lymphoid cells and serve as a site for exposing these cells to pathogens circulating in lymph.
4. Spleen: contains a high density of lymphoid cells and serves a site for exposing these cells to pathogens in blood
5. Tonsils: contains a high density of lymphoid cells and serves as sites for exposing these cells to pathogens that enter the body through the mucus membrane in the respiratory tract.
6. Diffuse Lymphatic Tissue: distributed throughout the respiratory and digestive tracts |
|
|
Term
| What are the 8 nonspecific defense mechanisms? |
|
Definition
1. Mechanical barriers
Examples: skin; mucous membranes; ciliated epithelium
2. Chemical protection
Examples: sebaceous glands in skin; enzymes in perspiration/tears; gastric secretions; vaginal secretions, pH
3. Antimicrobial substances
Interferons: proteins produced by lymphocytes and fibroblasts (figure 21.5); inhibit the reproduction of viruses stimulate phagocytosis.
4. Phagocytosis: destruction of foreign substances by engulfing and digesting (figure 21.2)
5. Natural Killer Cells: A type of lymphocyte with some innate ability to destroy virus infected cells and cancer cells.
6. C-reactive protein (CRP): Produced by the liver in response to chemicals released during inflammation and function to bind to and mark pathogens for destruction by phagocytes or complement. Also considered a marker of inflammation.
7. Complement: Plasma proteins that may act nonspecifically under some circumstances to cause cell lysis (more important in the specific immune response)
8. Fever : (due to endogenous pyrogens) low grade fevers may enhance immune system function |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of phagocytic cells? |
|
Definition
Neutrophils : phagocytize small particles
Macrophages (develop from monocytes): phagocytize larger particles; highly effective in tissues and lymphatic system
Tissue specific macrophages |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 CHANGES (not signs) associated with inflammation and their causes? |
|
Definition
Arteriolar Vasodilation- Release of chemical mediators (histamine, complement, kinins, prostaglandins)
Increased Capillary Permeability-Release of chemical mediators (histamine, complement, kinins, prostaglandins)
Activation of Pain Receptors-Release of chemical mediators (histamine, complement, kinins, prostaglandins)
Attraction of White Blood Cells (neutrophils, monocyte, lymphocytes) via leukocytosis inducing factor and chemotaxis (neutrophils following the chemical trail to the site of injury) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 SIGNS (not changes) associated with inflammation? |
|
Definition
Heat/warmth- due to increased blood flow (hyperemia)
Redness- due to increased blood flow to the area
Pain- due to swelling and activation of pain sensors
Swelling- due to increased exudate formation |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of specific (adaptive) immunity cells? |
|
Definition
1. T lymphocytes
2. B lymphocytes
3. Macrophages and Accessory cells |
|
|
Term
| Accessory cell (aka antigen-presenting cell (APC)) |
|
Definition
| A cell that displays foreign antigen complex with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on its surface. T-cells may recognize this complex using their T-cell receptor (TCR). These cells process antigens and present them to T-cells. |
|
|
Term
| Antigens (definition and 4 types) |
|
Definition
Large complex molecules with antigenic determinants to which the lymphocyte receptor may bind.
proteins
glycoproteins
lipoproteins
some nucleic acids and polysaccharides |
|
|
Term
| Major histocompatibility proteins (MHC) |
|
Definition
| A family of glycoproteins that are expressed on all nucleated cells. They are genetically determined and their expression is unique in all individuals (except identical twins). Tissue typing for transplant involves finding tissues with similar MHCs. |
|
|
Term
| What is the screening process for lymphoctyes? |
|
Definition
| All lymphocytes that have receptors that strongly bind to self antigens are destroyed in the screening process |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of specific immunity? |
|
Definition
Antibody mediated
Cell mediated |
|
|
Term
| Antibody Mediated Specific Immunity (3) |
|
Definition
indirect attack on antigens in body fluids by antibodies secreted by B-lymphocytes
most effective against bacteria
aids in removal of viruses from body fluids |
|
|
Term
| Cell mediated specific immunity (2) |
|
Definition
involves direct binding and attack on cells by T lymphocytes
Particularly important as a defense against viruses and intracellular bacteria as well as parasites and fungi |
|
|
Term
| Activity of B lymphocytes (4) |
|
Definition
Stimulus: binding to antigenic determinant (pathogen) that is found in body fluids
Response:
increase in number (by mitosis) of B cells with same receptor as that bound to antigen
differentiation of some cells in plasma cells that secrete antibodies
formation of memory cells that retain the ability to make antibodies (increase effectiveness during a subsequent exposure) |
|
|
Term
| What are the five different immunoglobin molecules and what distinct features does each one have? |
|
Definition
IgG : ~80% of the antibody secreted; (secreted as a monomer)
IgD: acts an antigen receptor on the lymphocyte membrane
IgM: acts as a antigen receptor on the lymphocyte membrane (monomer) and is the first antibody secreted during a primary response (secreted as a pentamer)
IgA: found in body fluids such as saliva, sweat and milk (dimer)
IgE: Attaches to basophils and mast cells and is associated with allergic reactions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Bind to antigens
and then either
1 Neutralizes, Agglutinates or precipitates antigen
2 Stimulates phagocytosis (opsonization)
or 3 Activates complement proteins |
|
|
Term
| Complement system progression (3) |
|
Definition
1. Recognition: Three complement proteins bind with the antigen-antibody complex
2. Activation: Binding of the complement proteins leads to the activation of a key complement protein that catalyzes the combination of several other complement proteins
3. Attack: Insertion of complement proteins in the cell membrane of the pathogen and formation of major attack complex (MAC) as a large pore in the membrane of the pathogen. The large pore causes cell lysis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Cytotoxic T cells: function directly to destroy pathogens; bind to and destroy self cells that express MHCI and display abnormal proteins (most often due to viral infection or cancer)
2. Helper T cells: cells aid in all aspects of the immune response via secretion of interleukins
3. Suppressor (Regulator) T cells: secrete interleukins that limit the immune response |
|
|
Term
| Three types of accessory cells |
|
Definition
1. Macrophages
2. B-lymphocytes
3. Dendritic cells |
|
|
Term
| 4 roles Helper T lymphocytes |
|
Definition
express CD4 proteins that bind to MHCII
The CD4 protein and antigen receptor recognize the MHCII glycoprotein complexed with a foreign antigen
Requires costimulation with Interleukins 1 and 2 or other costimulatory signals from APCs
release interleukins that stimulate other immune responses |
|
|
Term
| What three cells are helper t cells activated by? |
|
Definition
| Macrophages, dendritic cells, and B-lymphocytes |
|
|
Term
| What four cells do helper T cells stimulate? |
|
Definition
via interleukins they stimulate:
B cell proliferation (Interleukin 4 and other cytokines) Note that these chemical signals are necessary for full B lymphocyte activation
Cytotoxic T cell proliferation
Natural Killer Cells
Macrophages |
|
|
Term
| Cytotoxic T lymphocytes 5 Features |
|
Definition
Express CD8 proteins that bind to MHCI
Activated by cancer cells or cells infected by virus or bacteria
Proliferation is stimulated by Helper T cells
Kills foreign cells via chemical agents (e.g. perforins, and agranzyme)
Killing requires binding of Cytotoxic T lymphocyte to the cell |
|
|
Term
| Two types of active immunity |
|
Definition
naturally acquired (direct exposure)
artificially acquired (vaccination) |
|
|
Term
| Two types of passive immunity |
|
Definition
naturally acquired (from mother to fetus)
artificially acquired (injection of immunoglobulin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Attacks CD4 cells including Helper T lymphocytes
Since TH cells secrete factors that are necessary for full activation of all aspects of immunity, the virus severely compromises the immune system
The immune system does respond to the virus, but is not able to completely eliminate it.
Without treatment the onset of AIDs occurs after many years as the TH cell population declines to low numbers
There are drugs available to decrease the rate at which the virus infects new cells, but there is still no cure or effective vaccine |
|
|
Term
| What is the constitution of blood plasma? |
|
Definition
92% Water
7% Proteins
1% Electrolytes, Nutrients |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Proteins Secreted By Lymphocytes in Response to Foreign Antigens |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 types of anemia? |
|
Definition
1. Hemorrhagic (Blood Loss)
2. Pernicious (Lacking B-12)
3. Aplastic (Decreased Production)
4. Hemolytic (Increased Destruction)
5. Sickle Cell (Abnormal Hemoglobin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Three leukoctye abnormalities |
|
Definition
1. Leukocytosis: Abnormally High White Blood Cell Count
2. Leukopenia: Abnormally Low White Blood Cell Count
3. Leukemia: Cancer Characterized By Uncontrolled Production Of Specific Leukocytes |
|
|
Term
| Platelets Definition & three chemicals they secrete |
|
Definition
| Cell Fragments Derived From Megakaryocytes In Bone Marrow; secrete ADP, Prostaglandins And Serotonin |
|
|
Term
| 5 Factors That Limit Clot Formation |
|
Definition
Normal endothelial cells: the smooth surface inhibits platelets and endothelial cells also secrete inhibitors of other clotting factors
Large amounts of factors required are limited to the clot
Antithrombin III: Plasma Protein that inhibits unbound thrombin
Protein C: Plasma protein that inhibits several factors in the intrinsic pathway
Heparin: Secreted by basophils and mast cells and acts to inhibit the intrinsic pathway |
|
|
Term
| Two Factors That Promote Fibrinolysis |
|
Definition
Plasmin: acts to dissolve fibrin
Plasminogen Activators (TPA): enzyme that converts plasminogen into plasmin |
|
|
Term
| 3 anticoagulants mentioned in class |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Abnormal Bleeding Due To Low Platelet Count |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Increased Bleeding Due To Absence of Proteins Involved In Clotting Mechanisms |
|
|
Term
| Draw the homeostatic control mechanism involving ADH (antidiuretic hormone) from the posterior pituitary |
|
Definition
| Sweating --> controlled condition increase = in plasma osmolarity --> sensor = hypothamus --> integrating center = posterior pituitary gland --> signal = ADA --> Effector Water retained in kidney --> plasma osmolarity down --> sensed by hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| Describe how release of pituitary TSH and ACTH are regulated by the hypothalamus and list the primary effects of each hormone |
|
Definition
| Prolonged Stress --> sensor & integrating center = hypothalamus --> Corticoreleasing hormone --> (second integrating center) anterior pituitary --> ACTH (adrenal corticotropic hormone) --> adrenal cortex --> cortisol --> effector = blood glucose and FA up --> hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| Percentage of WBC composition |
|
Definition
Granulocytes
1. Neutrophils (54-62% Of WBC)
2. Eosinophils (1-3% WBC)
3. Basophils (<1% WBC)
Agranulocytes
1. Monocytes (Very Large, 3-9% Of WBC)
2. Lymphocytes (25-33% Of WBC) |
|
|
Term
| Stem cell progression for an Eosinophil (7) |
|
Definition
| Hemocytoblast --> myeloid stem cell --> myeloblast --> promyeloctyte --> eosinophilic myelocyte --> eosinophilic band cell --> eosinophils |
|
|
Term
| Stem cell progression for a basophil (7) |
|
Definition
| Hemocytoblast --> myeloid stem cell --> myeloblast --> promyeloctyte --> basophilic myelocyte --> basophilic band cell --> basophil |
|
|
Term
| Neutrophil stem cell progression (7) |
|
Definition
| Hemocytoblast --> myeloid stem cell --> myeloblast --> promyeloctyte --> neutrophilic myelocyte --> neutrophilic band cell --> neutrophil |
|
|
Term
| Monocyte/Macrophage stem cell progression (6) |
|
Definition
| Hemocytoblast --> Myeloid stem cell --> monoblast --> promonocyte --> monocyte --some become--> macrophages |
|
|
Term
| Lymphocyte/Plasma cell stem cell progression (6) |
|
Definition
| Hemocytoblast --> lymphoid stem cell --> lymphoblast --> prolymphocyte --> lymphocytes --some become--> plasma cells |
|
|
Term
| Indicate what defines a chemical signal as a hormone, and what determines the target tissues(s) for a specific hormone |
|
Definition
A hormone is a chemical signal that travels through the blood to a specific tissue to send a message
Target tissues have receptors for the hormone |
|
|
Term
| Describe the chemical classification of hormones and apply this classification to the specific hormones that we discuss in class (6) |
|
Definition
Peptide: Short chain amino acids: ADH
Protein: Long chain amino acids: PTH
Glycoprotein: Protein and carbohydrate: TSH
Catecholamines: Amino acid derivatives formed from Tyrosine (ex, epinephrine)
Thyroid hormones: contain iodine, amino acids made from 2 Tyrosines (ex, T3 and T4)
Steroids: Made from cholesterol; complex rings of carbon and hydrogen. (ex, estrogen, testosterone, cortisol) |
|
|
Term
| Describe four ways in which hormonal secretion may be regulated by the nervous system |
|
Definition
Anterior pituitary is regulated by neurohormones.
Posterior pituitary is regulated by neural stimulation.
Adrenal medulla releases hormones when stimulated directly by neurons.
Preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system (to release epinephrine as an adrenaline response)
Stimulation or inhibition may occur in other endrocrine glands because of sympathetic/sympathetic nervous system. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how negative feedback is used in regulating hormone secretion (4) |
|
Definition
T3 and T4 are released out of the thyroid to stop hypothalamus (integrating center) to tell the other integrating center (anterior pituitary) to stop secreting TRH and TSH.
When BMR raises, it sends the signal to hypothalamus to stop releasing TRH.
Minerals or ions in the blood
Organic nutrients in the blood (insulin to glucose) |
|
|
Term
| Describe how damaged red blood cells are removed from circulation and how the breakdown products are recycled or eliminated. |
|
Definition
Damaged RBCs Are Removed in Liver and Spleen and destroyed by macrophages, Iron and Amino acids are recycled.
The porpyrin ring is made into bilirubin in the liver and secreted in bile, and the globin is broken down into amino acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Come from hemocytoblasts; Platelets are secreted fragments of megakaryocytes |
|
|
Term
| Describe the production and actions of thyroid hormone and explain how thyroid hormone is secreted and regulated |
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Definition
| Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, BRM specifically, thyroid hormone is secreted by the hypothalamus releasing TRH which causes the anterior pituitary to release TSH which causes the thyroid to produce and release T3 and T4 which require iodine for production |
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Term
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Definition
| Defensive cell (a type of lymphocyte) that can kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells before the adaptive immune system is activated |
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Term
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Definition
| A substance or part of a substance (living or nonliving) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system, activates the immune system, and reacts with immune cells or their products. |
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Term
| What is the adaptive value of inflammation? |
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Definition
| The functional changes during inflammation bring in more nutrients and white blood cells that are important in healing and defense against pathogens (when the injury includes exposure to pathogens. The pain makes one aware of the injury. |
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Term
| On the basis of antibody-mediated immunity, explain why a particular bacteria makes you sick during the first exposure, but not on subsequent exposures. |
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Definition
| Some of the B lymphocytes that are formed as a result of the initial exposure differentiate into memory cells that respond much more quickly with second exposure. This results in antibodies forming much more quickly during the second exposure so that the pathogen is destroyed efficiently and isn’t able to cause damage. |
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Term
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Definition
| Interferon genes are turned on in a virus infected cell. Virus infected cell produces interferon molecules which bind to other cells, causing them to produce antiviral proteins. |
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