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A/ P II- Final Exam
Final Exam
607
Anatomy
Undergraduate 3
12/07/2011

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Term
Acromegaly
Definition
Abnormal growth of the hands, feet, and face, caused by overproduction of growth hormone by the pituitary gland.
Term
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Definition
Anterior pituitary hormone that influences the activity of the adrenal cortex.
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
Hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion by the kidneys.
Term
Androgen
Definition
A hormone such as testosterone that controls male secondary sex characteristics.
Term
Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
Definition
The glandular part of the pituitary gland.
Term
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or vasopressin)
Definition
Hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary; stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water, reducing urine volume.
Term
Calcitonin
Definition
Hormone released by the thyroid. Lowers blood calcium levels only when present at high (therapeutic) levels.
Term
Cortisol (hydrocortisone)
Definition
Glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex.
Term
Cretinism
Definition
Severe hypothyroidism resulting in physical and mental stunting in infants. It is characterized by mental retardation, impaired growth, low body temperature and abnormal bone formation.
Term
Cushing's Syndrome
Definition
A metabolic disorder caused by overproduction of glucocorticoid by the adrenal cortex and often involving obesity and high blood pressure. It can be caused by a tumor (then is called a disease) or most often, by the clinical administration of pharmacological doses of glucocorticoid drugs.
Term
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Definition
Disease caused by deficient insulin release or by insulin resistance, leading to inability of the body cells to use carbohydrates.
Term
Epinephrine
Definition
Chief hormone produced by the adrenal medulla. Also called adrenaline.
Term
Estrogen
Definition
Hormone that stimulates female secondary sex characteristics; female sex hormones.
Term
Glucagon
Definition
Hormone formed by alpa cells of pancreatic islets; raises the glucose level of blood.
Term
Endemic or Simple Goiter
Definition
Caused by a deficiency of iodine in the diet. One sees thyroid enlargement, listlessness, and weight gain. Thyroxine production slows because iodine is not available. In an attempt to increase thyroxine, the thyroid enlarges.
Term
Gonadotropin Hormone (FSH & LH)
Definition
Regulate the function of the gonads (ovaries & testes) & produced by the anterior pituitary. In both sexes, FSH stimulates gamete (sperm or egg) production and LH promotes production of gonadal hormones.
Term
Growth Hormone (GH)
Definition
Hormone that stimulates growth in general and metabolic actions; produced by cells called somatotrophs in anterior pituitary; also called somatotropin (STH); major targets are bones and skeletal muscles; promotes protein synthesis.
Term
Hormone
Definition
Steroidal or amino-acid based molecules released to the blood that act as chemical messengers to regulate specific body functions.
Term
Insulin
Definition
A hormone that enhances the carrier-mediated diffusion of glucose into tissue cells, thus lowering blood glucose levels.
Term
Melatonin
Definition
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland; secretion peaks at night and helps set sleep-wake cycles; also a powerful antioxidant.
Term
Myxedema
Definition
Condition resulting from underactive thyroid gland. Symptoms include a low metabolic rate; felling chilled; constipation; thick, dry skin and puffy eyes; edema; lethargy; and mental sluggishness (but not mental retardation).
Term
Norepinephrine (NE)
Definition
A catecholamine neurotransmitter and adrenal medullary hormone, associated with sympathetic nervous system activation.
Term
Pancreatic islets of Langerhans
Definition
Tiny cell clusters that produce pancreatic hormones. These contain 2 major populations of hormone-producing cells, the glucagon-synthesizing alpha cells and the more numerous insulin-producing beta cells.
Term
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Definition
Protein hormone released by the parathyroid glands that regulates blood calcium level. Release is triggered by falling blood Ca 2+ levels and inhibited by rising blood Ca 2+ levels. 3 target organs: the skeleton, the kidneys & the intestine.

Stimulates osteoclasts, enhances reabsorption of Ca 2+ by kidneys & promotes activation of vitamin D, thereby increasing absorption of Ca 2+ from food.
Term
Pineal Gland (body)
Definition
A hormone-secreting part of the diencephalon of the brain through to be involved in setting the biological clock and influencing reproductive function.
Term
Polydipsia
Definition
One of 3 signs of DM. Excessive thirst stimulated by the hypothalamic thirst centers.
Term
Polyphagia
Definition
One of 3 signs of DM. Refers to excessive hunger and food consumption, a sign that the person is "starving in the land of plenty." Although plenty of glucose is available, it cannot be used and the body starts to utilize its fat and protein stores for energy metabolism.
Term
Polyuria
Definition
One of 3 signs of DM. Excessive glucose in the kidney filtrate acts as an osmotic diuretic, resulting in a huge urin output that leads to decreased blood volume and dehydration. Serious electrolyte losses also occur as the body rids itself of excess ketone bodies, which are negatively charged and carry positive ions out with them. As a result, Na+ and K+ are also lost from the body.
Term
Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)
Definition
Portion of the gland derived from the brain; includes the infundibulum.
Term
Progesterone
Definition
Hormone partly responsible for preparing the uterus for the fertilized ovum.
Term
Prolactin (PRL)
Definition
Adenohypophyseal hormone that stimulates the breasts to produce milk.
Term
Prostaglandins
Definition
A lipid-based chemical messenger synthesized by most tissue cells that acts locally as a paracrine.
Term
Renin-Angiotensin Pathway
Definition
1st of 4 mechanisms regulating aldosterone secretion; influences both blood volume and blood pressure by regulating the release of aldosterone and therefore Na+ and water reabsorption by the kidneys. Specialized cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidneys become excited when blood pressure (or blood volume) declines.; ultimately involved in raising blood pressure.
Term
Testosterone
Definition
Male sex hormone produced by the testes; during puberty promotes virilization, and is necessary for normal sperm production.
Term
Thymosin, Thymulin, Thymoproteins
Definition
families for peptide hormones secreted by Thymic epithelial cells. These hormones are though to be involved in the normal development of T lymphocytes and the immune response, but their roles are not well understood. The mainly act locally as paracrines.
Term
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Definition
Adenohypophyseal hormone that regulates secretion of thyroid hormones.
Term
Thyroxine (T4)
Definition
Iodine-containing hormone secreted by thyroid follicles; stimulates enzymes concerned with glucose oxidation.
Term
TSH
Definition
(Secreted by) Adenohypophysis
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
(Secreted by) Adrenal Gland
Term
Calcitonin
Definition
(Secreted by) Thyroid Gland
Term
ADH
Definition
(Secreted by) Neurohypophysis
Term
Melatonin
Definition
(Secreted by) Pineal Gland
Term
Function of FSH
Definition
Stimulates development of the follicle in the ovaries
Term
Function of ACTH
Definition
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones, most importantly glucocorticoids that help the body to resist stressors.
Term
Function of TSH
Definition
Stimulates the thyroid gland.
Term
Function of GH
Definition
Mobilizes fats, spares glucose, and promotes the protein synthesis necessary for growth.
Term
Function of ADH
Definition
Stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb water from urine; prevents wide swings in water balance, helping the body avoid dehydration and water overload.
Term
Allantois
Definition
Embryonic membrane; its blood vessels develop into blood vessels of the umbilical cord.
Term
Amnion
Definition
Fetal membrane that forms a fluid-filled sac around the embryo.
Term
Blastocyst
Definition
Stage of early embryonic development; the product of cleavage.
Term
Chorion
Definition
Outermost fetal membrane; helps form the placenta.
Term
Embryo
Definition
Developmental stage extending from fertilization to the end of the eighth week.
Term
Epididymis
Definition
The portion of the male duct system in which sperm mature. Empties into the duct (or vas) deferens.
Term
Fetus
Definition
Developmental stage extending from the 9th week of development to birth.
Term
Fimbriae
Definition
Finger-like projections that drape over the ovary. Around the time of ovulation these stiffen and sweep the ovarian surface.
Term
Gamete
Definition
Sex or germ cell
Term
Gonad
Definition
Primary reproductive organ; i.e., the testis of the male or the ovary of the female.
Term
Meiosis
Definition
Nuclear division process that reduces the chromosomal number by half and results in the formation of 4 haploid (n) cells; occurs only incertain reproductive organs.
Term
Morula
Definition
The mulberry-like solid mass of blastomeres resulting from cleavage in the early conceptus.
Term
Parturition
Definition
Culmination of pregnancy; giving birth.
Term
Seminal fluid
Definition
Fluid mixture containing sperm and secretions of the male accessory reproductive glands.
Term
Seminiferous tubules
Definition
Highly convoluted tubes within the testes; form sperm.
Term
Vesicular (Graffian) follicle
Definition
Mature ovarian follicle
Term
Zygote
Definition
Fertilized egg.
Term
produce male gametes (sperm) and testosterone
Definition
What are the 2 major functions of the testes?
Term
seminiferous tubules
Definition
Which of the tubular structures are the sperm "factories"?
Term
allows penis to become stiff so that it may more efficiently enter the female to deliver sperm.
Definition
What is the function of the erectile tissue of the penis?
Term
ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, spongy urethra
Definition
Name the organs of the male duct system in order, from the epididymis to the body exterior.
Term
to pass nutrients to the sperm and absorb excess testicular fluid
Definition
What are two functions of the sterocilia on the epididymal epithelium?
Term
ductus deferens
Definition
Which accessory organ of the male duct system runs from the scrotum into the abdominal cavity?
Term
seminal vesicles
Definition
Which glandular accessory organ produces the larges proportion of semen?
Term
sperm plus the secretions of the male accessory glands
Definition
What is semen?
Term
Stiffening of the penis & parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
Definition
What is erection and what division of the ANS regulates it?
Term
the period of muscular and psychological relaxation that follows orgasm; reduces blood flow to penis & activates small muscles that force blood out of the penis.
Definition
What occurs during resolution and what is the result?
Term
Meiosis reduces the chromosomal count from 2n to n and introduces variability.
Definition
How is the final product of meiosis different from that of mitosis?
Term
The sperm head is the compacted DNA-containing nucleus. The acrosome that caps the head is a lysosome-like sac of enzymes. The midpiece contains the energy-producing mitochondria. The tail fashioned by a centriole is the propulsive structure.
Definition
Describe the major structural and functional regions of a sperm.
Term
the hormonal interrelationship between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and gonads that regulates the production of gametes and sex hormones.
Definition
What is the HPG axis?
Term
by prompting the sustentacular cells to secrete androgen-binding protein. Androgen-binding protein keeps the concentration of testosterone high in the vicinity of the spermatogenic cells, which directly stimulates spermatogenesis.
Definition
How does FSH indirectly stimulate spermatogenesis?
Term
appearance of pubic, axillary and facial hari, deepening of the voice, increased oiliness of the skin, and increased size (length and mass) of the bones and skeletal muscles.
Definition
What are the 3 secondary sex characteristics promoted by testosterone?
Term
ovaries & duct system (uterine tubes, uterus and vagina)
Definition
What are the internal genitalia in females?
Term
produce female gametes and secrete female sex hormones (estrogens & progesterone)
Definition
What 2 roles do the ovaries assume?
Term
Primary follicle has one layer of cuboidal follicle cells surrounding the oocyte; a secondary follicle has more than one layer and small fluid-filled spaces form between follicle cells; a vesicular follicle has several layers of follicle cells surrounding a fluid-filled cavity (antrum) that pushes the oocyte to one side.
Definition
How does a primary follicle differ from a secondary follicle? From a vesicular follicle?
Term
The duct system is incomplete- there is no physical connection between the ovary and uterine tubes, which are open to the pelvic cavity. In men, the duct is continuous from the testes to the body exterior.
Definition
Why are women more at risk for PID than men?
Term
The waving action of the fimbriae helps to direct the oocytes into the uterine tube.
Definition
Oocytes are ovulated into the peritoneal cavity and yet women do get pregnant. What action of the uterine tubes helps to direct the oocytes into the woman's duct system?
Term
the uterine tubes; uterus
Definition
What portion of the female duct system is the usual site of fertilization? Which is the "incubator" for fetal development?
Term
greater vestibular glands
Definition
What is the female homologue of the bulbourethral glands of males?
Term
modified sweat glands
Definition
Developmentally, mammary glands are modifications of certain skin glands. Which type?
Term
Epithelial cells of the smallest ducts.
Definition
From what cell types does breast cancer usually arise?
Term
The products of meiosis in females are 3 polar bodies (tiny haploid cells w/essentially no cytoplasm) and 1 haploid ovum (functional gamete). Meiosis in males yields 4 functional gametes, the haploid sperm.
Definition
How do haploid cells arising from oogenesis differ structurally and functionally from those arising from spermatogenesis?
Term
the ovulated follicle develops into a corpus luteum, which then secretes progesterone (and some estrogen).
Definition
What occurs in the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle?
Term
leptin
Definition
What hormone plays an important role in "letting the brain know" that puberty may occur in girls?
Term
estrogen
Definition
What gonadal hormone exerts positive feedback on the anterior pituitary that results in a burstlike release of LH?
Term
Amino acid based & steroids; steroids; thyroid hormone (TH)
Definition
Name the two major chemical classes of hormones. Which class consists entirely of lipid-soluble hormones? Name the only hormone in the other chemical class that is lipid-soluble.
Term
humoral, neural & hormonal
Definition
What are the 3 types of stimuli that control hormone release?
Term
LH & FSH- gonads
TSH- thyroid
ACTH- adrenal cortex
Definition
List the 4 anterior pituitary hormones that are tropic and name their target glands.
Term
increases basal metabolic rate
Definition
What is the major effect of TH?
Term
increases blood Ca2+ levels in a variety of ways
Definition
What is the major effect of PTH?
Term
lowers Ca2+
Definition
What is the major effect of calcitonin?
Term
thyroid follicle cells; chief cells; parafollicular cells
Definition
What cells release TH? PTH? Calcitonin?
Term
DM is due to a lack of insulin production or action, whereas DI is due to a lack of ADH. Both conditions are characterized by production of copious amounts of urine. You would find glucose in the urine of a patient with DM, but not in that of DI.
Definition
Diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus are both due to lack of a hormone. Which hormone causes which? What symptom do they have in common? What would you find in the urine of a patient with one and not the other?
Term
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP); decreases blood volume & pressure by increasing the kidney's production of salty urine.
Definition
What hormone does the heart produce and what is it's function?
Term
Vitamin D3 increases intestinal absorption of calcium.
Definition
What is the function of the hormone produced by the skin?
Term
GH; Estrogen
Definition
In the elderly, the decline in levels of which hormone is associated with muscle atrophy? With osteoporosis in women?
Term
Agglutination
Definition
clumping of (foreign) cells; induced by cross-linking of antigen-antibody complexes
Term
Aorta
Definition
major systemic artery; arises from the left ventricle of the heart
Term
Arteriole
Definition
a minute artery
Term
Atrioventricular node
Definition
specialized mass of conducting cells located at the atrioventricular junction of the heart
Term
Atrioventricular valve
Definition
valve that prevents backflow into the atrium when the connected ventricle is contracting
Term
Capillaries
Definition
smallest of the blood vessels and the sites of exchange between blood and tissue cells
Term
Deoxyhemoglobin
Definition
reduced hemoglobin after oxygen has been released from the iron
Term
Plasma- 55%
Buffy Coat (leukocytes & platelets)- less than 1%
Erythrocytes- 45%
Definition
Blood components by percentage
Term
Diastole
Definition
period of the cardiac cycle when either the ventricles or the atria are relaxing
Term
Differential WBC count
Definition
diagnostic test to determine relative proportion of individual leukocyte types
Term
Embolism
Definition
obstruction of a blood vessel by an embolus (blood clot, fatty mass, bubble of air and/or other debris) floating in the blood
Term
Endocardium
Definition
endothelial membrane that lines the interior of the heart
Term
Epicardium
Definition
the visceral, or external, layer of the heart
Term
Erythrocyte
Definition
red blood cells
Term
Fibrin
Definition
fibrous insoluble protein formed during blood clotting
Term
Fibrinogen
Definition
a soluble blood protein that is converted to insoluble fibrin during blood clotting
Term
Formed Elements
Definition
cellular portion of blood-platelets, wbc & rbc
Term
Hematocrit
Definition
the percentage of total blood volume occupied by erythrocytes
Term
Heme
Definition
Iron-containing pigment that is essential to oxygen transport by hemoglobin
Term
Hemoglobin
Definition
oxygen-transporting protein of erythrocytes
Term
Hemolytic anemia
Definition
erythrocytes rupture, or lyse, prematurely
Term
Hemophilia
Definition
a term loosley applied to several different hereditary bleeding disorders that exhibit similar signs and symptoms
Term
Hepatic Portal System
Definition
Circulation in which the hepatic portal vein carries dissolved nutrients to the liver tissues for processing.
Term
Inferior Vena Cava
Definition
Vein that returns blood from body areas below the diaphragm.
Term
Leukocytosis
Definition
An increase in the number of leukocytes; usually the result of a microbiological attack on the body.
Term
Leukopenia
Definition
abnormally low WBC count
Term
Lymphocyte
Definition
agranular WBC that arises from bone marrow and becomes functionally mature in the lymphoid organs of the body.
Term
Myocardium
Definition
layer of the heart wall composed of cardiac muscle
Term
Oxyhemoglobin
Definition
Oxygen-bound form of hemoglobin
Term
Pericardium
Definition
double-layered sac enclosing the heart and forming its superficial layer; has fibrous and serous layers.
Term
Plasma
Definition
the nonliving fluid component of blood within which formed elements and various solutes are suspended and circulated.
Term
Platelet
Definition
cell fragment found in blood; involved in clotting
Term
Polycythemia
Definition
an abnormally high number of erythrocytes
Term
Prothombin
Definition
plasma protein that activates the enzyme thrombin via the prothrombin activator
Term
Pulmonary circuit
Definition
system of blood vessels that serves gas exchange in the lungs; ie, pulmonary arteries, capillaries and veins.
Term
Systemic circuit
Definition
Blood vessels that carry the functional blood supply to and from all body tissues for gas exchange in those tissues.
Term
Pulse
Definition
rhythmic expansion and recoil of arteries resulting from heart contraction; can be felt from outside the body.
Term
Purkinje fibers
Definition
modified ventricular muscle fibers of the conduction system of the heart
Term
Semilunar valves
Definition
valves that prevent blood return to the ventricles after contraction; aortic and pulmonary valves.
Term
Serum
Definition
Amber-colored fluid that exudes from clotted blood as the clot shrinks; plasma without clotting factors
Term
Sinoatrial node
Definition
Specialized myocardial cells in the wall of the right atrium; the pacemaker of the heart
Term
Superior vena cava
Definition
vein that returns blood from body regions superior to the diaphragm
Term
Systole
Definition
period when either the ventricles or the atria are contracting
Term
Thrombin
Definition
enzyme that induces clotting by converting fibrinogin to fibrin
Term
Tricuspid valve
Definition
the right atrioventricular valve
Term
Vein
Definition
blood vessel that returns blood toward the heart from circulation
Term
Ventricles
Definition
paired, inferiorly located heart chambers that function as the major blood pumps
Term
Venule
Definition
a small vein
Term
45%
Definition
What is the normal hematocrit value?
Term
1. Prevent blood loss via clotting.
2. Prevent infection because it contains antimicrobial proteins & WBCs.
Definition
List 2 protective functions of blood.
Term
No- their presence is required to perform many key functions.
Definition
Are plasma proteins used as fuel for body cells?
Term
4; heme
Definition
How many molecules of O2 can each hemoglobin molecule transport? What part of the hemoglobin binds the O2?
Term
The kidneys' synthesis of erythropoietin is compromised in advanced kidney disease, so RBC production decreases, causing anemia.
Definition
Patients w/advanced kidney disease often have anemia. Why?
Term
monocytes; neutrophils
Definition
Which WBCs turn into macrophages in tissues? Which other WBC is a voracious phagocyte?
Term
Endocrine System
Definition
second major controlling system of the body
Term
Hormones
Definition
a chemical substance liberated into the blood, which alters "target cells" metabolism in a specific manner; arouse the body's tissues and cells by stimulating changes in their metabolic activity
Term
Hormone producing glands
Definition
anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathyroids
Term
Mixed (endocrine & exocrine) Glands
Definition
pancreas & gonads
Term
Tropic Hormones (definition)
Definition
stimulates its target organ, which is also an endocrine gland, to secrete its hormones
Term
Tropic Hormones (list)
Definition
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Term
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Definition
regulate gamete production and homronal activity of the gonads
Term
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Definition
regulates endocrine activity of the cortex portion of the adrenal gland
Term
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Definition
influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland
Term
Growth Hormone (GH)
Definition
a general metabolic hormone that plays an important role in determining body size. It affects many tissues of the body; however, its major effects are exerted on the growth of muscle and the long bones of the body.
Term
Pituitary Dwarfism
Definition
results of hyposecretion of GH
Term
Acromegaly in adults or Gigantism in children
Definition
results of hypersecretion of GH
Term
Prolactin (PRL)
Definition
stimulates breast development and promotes and maintains lactation by the mammary glands after childbirth; may stimulate testosterone production in males.
Term
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Definition
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL
Term
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Definition
Oxytocin, ADH
Term
Oxytocin
Definition
stimulates powerful uterine contractions during birth and coitus and also causes milk ejection in the lactating mother.
Term
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Definition
causes the distal and collecting tubules of the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the urinary filtrate, thereby reducing urine output and conserving body water; also plays a minor role in increasing blood pressure because of its vasoconstrictor effect on the arterioles.
Term
Diabetes Insipidus
Definition
result of hyposecretion of ADH and causes dehydration from excessive urine output & insatiable thirst.
Term
Edema, headache & disorientation
Definition
results from hypersecretion of ADH.
Term
Hormones of the Thryroid Gland
Definition
TH & Calcitonin
Term
Thryroid Gland
Definition
composed of two lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus
Term
Thyroid Hormone (TH)
Definition
T4 (thyroxine) & T3 (tridiothyronine)primary function is to control the rate of body metabolism and cellular oxidation; affects virtually every cell in the body

T4 is really the main hormone here.
Term
Myxedema
Definition
result of hyposecretion of thyroxine (T4) which leads to mental and physical sluggishness
Term
elevated metabolic rate, nervousness, weight loss, sweating and irregular heartbeat
Definition
result of hypersecretion of thyroxine
Term
Calcitonin
Definition
decreases blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium salt deposits in the bones; acts antagonistically to parathyroid hormone.
Term
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Definition
the most important regulator of calcium balance in the blood; when blood CA+ levels decrease below a certain level, this is released, which causes the release of calcium from bone matrix and prods the kidney to reabsorb more calcium and less phosphate from the filtrate; also stimulates the kidneys to activate vitamin D.
Term
Tetany
Definition
result of hyposecretion of PTH; increases neural excitability and prolonged muscle spasms that can result in respiratory paralysis and death.
Term
loss of calcium from bones, causing defomation, softening and spontaneous fractures
Definition
results of hypersecretion of PTH
Term
Adrenal Glands
Definition
Adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex
Term
Norepinephrine & epinephrine
Definition
act in conjunction with the sympathetic nervous system to elicit the fight or flight response to stressors
Term
3 hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
Definition
mineralcorticoids (aldosterone), gloucocorticoids (cortisone, hydrocortisone & cortocosterone), gonadocroticoids (androgens & estrogens)
Term
Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone
Definition
regulate water and electrolyte balance in the extracellular fluids, mainly by regulating sodium ion reabsorption by kidney tubules
Term
Glucocorticoids (cortisone, hydrocortisone, corticosterone)
Definition
enable the body to resist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing blood glucose levels
Term
Hirsutism
Definition
hypersecretion of gonadocorticoids produces abnormal hairiness and masculization
Term
Insulin
Definition
produced in pancreas and is stimulated by elevated blood glucose levels
Term
Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
hyposecretion of insulin or some deficiency in the insulin receptors leads to this and is characterized by the inability of body cells to utilize glucose and the subsequent loss of glucose in the urine.
Term
Hypoglycemia
Definition
hypersecretion of insulin causes low blood sugar- symptoms include anxiety, nervousness, tremors and weakness.
Term
Glucagon
Definition
acts antagonistically to insulin; its release is stimulated by low blood glucose levels and its action is basically hyperglycemic; it stimulates the liver, its primary target organ, to break down its glycogen stores to glucose and subsequently to release the glucose to the blood.
Term
Hormones of the gonads
Definition
Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone
Term
Estrogens
Definition
resoponsible for the development of the secondary sex characteristics of the female at puberty (primarily maturation of the reproductive organs and development of the breasts) and act with progesterone to brin about cyclic changes of the uterine lining that occur during the menstrual cycle.
Term
Progesterone
Definition
acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle; during pregnancy it maintains the uterine musculature in a quiescent state and helps to prepare the breast tissue for lactation.
Term
Testosterone
Definition
promotes the maturation of the reproductive system accessory structures, brings about the development of the male secondary sex characteristics, and is responsible for the sexual drive.
Term
Thymus
Definition
bilobed gland sin the superior thorax, begins to atrophy at puberty and by old age is relatively inconspicuous; produces thymosin and thymopoietin
Term
Thymosin & Thymopoietin
Definition
help direct the maturation and specialization of a unique population of white blood cells called T lymphocytes, or T cells. T cells are responsible for the cellular immunity aspect of body defense; that is, rejection of foreign grafts, tumors or virus-infected cells
Term
Melatonin
Definition
produced in the pineal gland
Term
Follicles
Definition
spherical sacs, found in the thyroid gland, containing a pink-stained material (colloid). Stored T3 & T4 are attached to the protein colloidal material stored in the folligles as THYROIDGLOBULIN and are released gradually to the blood.

These are surrounded by purple staining follicle cells that synthesize the follicular products. The PARAFOLLICULAR, or C, Cells you see btween the follicles are responsible for calcitonin.
Term
Chief Cells
Definition
synthesize parathyroid hormone (PTH); small and abundant & arranged in thick branching cords.
Term
Oxyphil cells
Definition
found in parathyroid gland; function unknown.
Term
Alpha Cells
Definition
found in the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans); stain red; produce glucagon
Term
Beta Cells
Definition
found in the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans); stain gray-blue; synthesize insulin
Term
Acidophil Cells
Definition
found in anterior pituitary gland; stain reddish brown; produce growth hormone & prolactin
Term
Basophil cells
Definition
found in anterior pituitary gland; stain deep blue; produce tropic hormones (TSH, ACTH, FSH & LH)
Term
Chromophobes
Definition
found in anterior pituitary gland; do not stain and appear rather dull & colorless; role is controversial, but they apparently are not directly involved in hormone production
Term
Pituicytes
Definition
found in the posterior pituitary; glial cells which are randomly distributed among the nerve fibers
Term
Zona Glomerulosa
Definition
outermost layer of the adrenal gland, where most mineralocorticoid production occurs and where tightly packed cells are arranged in spherical clusters.
Term
Zona Fasciculata
Definition
deeper intermediate layer of the adrenal gland, which produces glucocorticoids. This is the thickest part of the cortex and its cells are arranged in parallel cords.
Term
Zona Reticularis
Definition
innermost cortical layer of the adrenal gland, abutting the medulla, which produces sex hormones and some glucocorticoids; cells stain intensely and forma a branching network.
Term
2 major molecular groups which hormones belong to
Definition
amino acid- based molecules and the steroids
Term
Target Organ
Definition
organ which responds to a particular hormone in a specific way
Term
thyroid
Definition
located in the throat; bilobed gland connected by an isthmus
Term
adrenal gland
Definition
found close to the kidney
Term
pancreas
Definition
a mixed gland , located close to the stomach and small intestine
Term
testes
Definition
paired glands suspended in the scrotum
Term
parathyroids
Definition
ride "horseback" on the thyroid gland
Term
ovaries
Definition
found in the pelvic cavity of the female; concerned with ova and female hormone production
Term
thymus
Definition
found in the upper thorax overlying the heart; large during youth
Term
pineal body
Definition
found in the roof of the third ventricle
Term
thymosin from thymus
Definition
Programming of T lymphocytes
Term
calcitonin from parathyroid gland
and
PTH from thrydoid gland
Definition
regulate blood calcium levels
Term
epinephrine from adrenal medulla
and
cortisone from adrenal cortex
Definition
released in response to stressors
Term
estrogens from ovaries
and
testosterone from testes
Definition
drive development of secondary sexual characteristics
Term
ACTH, FSH, TSH and LH from anterior pituitary
Definition
regulate the function of another endocrine gland
Term
epinephrine from adrenal medulla
Definition
mimics the sympathetic nervous system
Term
glucagon & insulin from the pancreas
Definition
regulate blood glucose levels; produced by the same "mixed" gland
Term
estrogens & progesterone from ovaries
Definition
directly responsible for regulation of the menstrual cycle
Term
ADH from hypothalamus
aldosterone from adrenal cortex
Definition
maintenance of salt and water balance in the extracellular fluid
Term
oxytocin from posterior pituitary
prolactin from anterior pituitary
Definition
directly involved in milk production and ejection
Term
ADH
Definition
stimulated by the nervous system (neurotransmitters or neurosecretions)
Term
aldosterone
Definition
stimulated by humoral factors (concentration of specific non hormonal substances in the blood or extracellular fluid)
Term
estrogens
Definition
stimulated by another hormone
Term
insulin
Definition
stimulated by humoral factors (concentration of specific non hormonal substances in the blood or extracellular fluid)
Term
norepinephrine
Definition
stimulated by the nervous system (neurotransmitters or neurosecretions)
Term
parathyroid hormone
Definition
stimulated by humoral factors (concentration of specific non hormonal substances in the blood or extracellular fluid)
Term
T4/T3
Definition
stimulated by another hormone
Term
T4/T3
Definition
stimulated by another hormone
Term
testosterone
Definition
stimulated by another hormone
Term
TSH, FSH
Definition
stimulated by the nervous system (neurotransmitters or neurosecretions)
Term
tetany
Definition
inadequate amounts of PTH
Term
excessive diuresis w/o high blood gluclose levels
Definition
inadequate ADH levels
Term
loss of glucose in the urine
Definition
inadequate insulin
Term
abnormally small stature, normal proportions
Definition
inadequate amounts of GH
Term
low BMR, mental and physical sluggishness
Definition
inadequate T4/T3
Term
large hands and feet in the adult, large facial bones
Definition
excessive GH
Term
nervousness, irregular pulse rate, sweating
Definition
excessive T4/T3
Term
demineralization of bones, spontaneous fractures
Definition
excessive PTH
Term
calcitonin
Definition
produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid
Term
GH, Prolactin
Definition
produced by the acidophil cells of the anterior pituitary
Term
glucagon
Definition
produced by alpha cells of the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
Term
glucocorticoids
Definition
produced by the zona fasciculata cells
Term
insulin
Definition
produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets
Term
mineralocorticoids
Definition
produced by the zona glomerulosa cells
Term
PTH
Definition
produced by the chief cells of the parathyroid
Term
T4/T3
Definition
produced by the follicular epithelial cells of the thyroid
Term
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
Definition
produced by the basophil cells of the anterior pituitary
Term
epididymis
Definition
provides a site for immature sperm to complete their maturation process
Term
spermatic cord
Definition
blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels & ductus deferens enclosed in a connective tissue sheath
Term
sperm production & testerone production
Definition
2 principal functions of the testis
Term
penis
Definition
copulatory organ/penetrating device
Term
ductus (vas) deferens
Definition
muscular passageway conveying sperm to the ejaculatory duct; in the spermatic cord
Term
spongy urethra
Definition
transports both sperm and urine
Term
epididymus
Definition
sperm maturation site
Term
scrotum
Definition
location of the testis in adult males
Term
prepuce
Definition
loose fold of skin encircling the glans penis
Term
membranous urethra
Definition
portion of the urethra between the prostate and the penis
Term
prostate
Definition
empties a secretion into the prostatic urethra
Term
bulbourethral gland
Definition
empties a secretion into the membranous urethra
Term
composition of semen
Definition
sperm & the alkaline secretions of the prostate, bulbourthral glands, and seminal vessicles
Term
pathway of sperm
Definition
seminiferous tubules-> rete testis-> epididymis-> ductus deferens
Term
female external genitalia
Definition
mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal & urethral openings, hymen, greater vestibular glands
Term
uterus
Definition
site of fetal development
Term
vagina
Definition
copulatory canal
Term
uterine tube
Definition
"fertilized egg" typically formed here
Term
clitoris
Definition
becomes erect during sexual excitement
Term
uterine tube
Definition
duct extending superolaterally from uterus
Term
hymen
Definition
partially closes the vaginal canal; a membrane
Term
ovary
Definition
produces oocytes, estrogens and progesterones
Term
fimbriae
Definition
fingerlike ends of the uterine tube
Term
ovulation
Definition
ejection of an egg (oocyte) from the ovary
Term
Name the 3 layers of the uterine wall from the inside out
Definition
endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium
Term
Which layer of the uterine wall contracts during child birth?
Definition
myometrium
Term
Gametosgenesis
Definition
the process of gamete formation, involving reduction of the chromosome number by half
Term
Homologous chromosomes
Definition
egg and sperm chromosomes that carry genes for the same traits
Term
Zygote
Definition
when the sperm and egg fuse to form a fertilized egg
Term
Diploid (2n)
Definition
containing 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (total of 46 chromosomes)
Term
Meiosis
Definition
a specialized type of nuclear division to produce gametes with the haploid chromosomal number; occurs in the ovaries and testes during gametogenesis
Term
Haploid (n)
Definition
half the number of normal chromosomes as seen in all other body cells (23 non paired chromosomes)
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
produces 4 haploid daughter cells
Term
Synapsis
Definition
duplicated homologous chromosomes pair up so that they become closely aligned along their entire length (during meiosis I)
Term
Tetrads
Definition
groupings of 4 chromosomes
Term
Crossover/Chiasmata
Definition
when treats form and become attached to the spindle fibers, aligning themselves along the spindle equator. While in synapsis, the "arms" of adjacent homologous chromosomes coil around each other
Term
Spermatogenesis
Definition
human sperm production; begins at puberty and continues without interruption throughout life; occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes
Term
Spermatogonia
Definition
primitive stem cells found at the tubule periphery, divide extensively to build up the stem cell line. Before puberty, all divisions are mitotic divisions that produce more spermatogonia. At puberty, under the influence of FSH secreted by ant. pit. gland, each mitotic division of a spermatogonium produces one spermatogonium and one primary spermatocyte.
Term
Primary Spermatocyte
Definition
undergoes meiosis, becoming spermatids
2n->n
Term
Spermatids
Definition
haploid cells that are the result of spermatogenesis and are not functional gametes. They are non motile cells and have too much excess baggage to function well in a reproductive capacity.
Term
Spermiogenesis
Definition
follows meiosis; strips away the extraneous cytoplasm from the spermatid, converting it to a motile, streamlined sperm.
Term
Sustenticular, or Sertoli, Cells
Definition
nourish the spermatids as they begin their transformation into sperm
Term
Interstitial Cells (Leydig cells)
Definition
these cells produce testosterone
Term
Mature Sperm
Definition
streamilined cell equipped with an organ of locomotion and a high rate of metabolism that enable it to move long distances very quickly.
Term
Acrosome
Definition
contains enzymes involved in sperm penetration of the egg
Term
Antrum
Definition
fluid filled space (central cavity) in the secondary follicle & vesicular follicle
Term
Granulosa cells
Definition
surrounding the oocyte (more than one layer of cells)
Term
Follicle Cells
Definition
one layer of cells surrounding the ovum
Term
Primordial Follicles
Definition
The ova before birth, surrounded by squamouslike follicle cells.
Term
Germinal epithelium
Definition
outermost layer of the ovary
Term
Primary follicle
Definition
one of a few layers of cuboidal follicle cells surrounding the larger central developing ovum
Term
Secondary (growing) follicles
Definition
follicles consisting of several layers of follicle (granulosa) cells surrounding the central developing ovum, and beginning to show evidence of fluid accumulation and antrum formation. This may take more than one cycle.
Term
Vescicular (Graafian) follicle
Definition
At this stage of development, the follicle has a large antrum containing fluid produced by the granulosa cells. The developing secondary oocyte is pushed to one side of the follicle and is surrounded by a capsule of several layers of granulosa cells called the corona radiata.
Term
Corona radiata
Definition
cells surrounding the vesicular follicle
Term
Corpus luteum
Definition
A solid glandular structure or a structure containing a scalloped lumen that develops from the ruptured follicle.
Term
Mestrual Cycle
Definition
hormonally controlled by estrogens and progesterone secreted by the ovary' divided into 3 stages
Term
3 stages of Menstrual Cycle
Definition
menstrual, proliferative, secretory
Term
Menstrual Phase (menses)
Definition
Approximately days 1-5; sloughing off of the thick functional layer of the endometrial lining; accompanied by bleeding
Term
Proliferative Phase
Definition
approximately days 6-14; under the influence of estrogens produced by the growing follicle of the ovary; endometrium is repaired; glands & blood vessels proliferate; endometrium thickens; ovulation occurs at the end
Term
Secretory phase
Definition
Approximately days 15-28; under the influence of progesterone produced by the corpus luteum; vascular supply to the endometrium increases further; glands increase in size & begin to secrete nutrient substances;
Term
dyads are visible
Definition
meiosis only
Term
tetrads are visible
Definition
both mitosis and meiosis
Term
product is 2 diploid daughter cells genetically identical to the mother cell
Definition
mitosis only
Term
product is 4 haploid daughter cells quantitatively and qualitatively different from the mother cell
Definition
meiosis only
Term
involves the phases of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
Definition
both mitosis and meiosis
Term
occurs throughout the body
Definition
mitosis only
Term
occurs only in the ovaries and testes
Definition
meiosis only
Term
provides cells for growth and repair
Definition
mitosis only
Term
homologues synapse; chiasmata are seen
Definition
meiosis only
Term
chromosomes are replicated before the division process begins
Definition
both mitosis and meiosis
Term
provides cells for replication of the species
Definition
meiosis only
Term
consists of 2 consecutive nuclear divisions, without chromosomal replication occurring before the second division
Definition
meiosis
Term
secondary spermatocyte
Definition
haploid, product of meiosis
Term
spermatogonium
Definition
primitive stem cell
Term
sustentacular cell
Definition
provides nutrients to developing sperm
Term
spermatid
Definition
haploid, product of meiosis
Term
sperm
Definition
haploid, product of spermiogenesis
Term
Spermatogenesis vs. Spermiogensis
Definition
Formation of haploid gametes by the male & sloughing off excessive cytoplasm to form a motile functional sperm
Term
How many primary oocytes are there once a girl is born?
Definition
approximately 2 million
Term
What is the major hormone produced by the vesicular follicle
Definition
estrogen
Term
What are the major hormones produced by the corpus luteum?
Definition
estrogen & progesterone.
Term
oogonium
Definition
forming part of the primary follicle in the ovary
Term
secondary oocyte
Definition
in the uterine tube before fertilization, in the mature vesicular follicle of the ovary
Term
ovum
Definition
in the uterine tube shortly after sperm penetration
Term
The final product of oogenesis?
Definition
one ovum and 3 polar bodies
Term
Produced by primary follicles in the ovary
Definition
FSH
Term
ovulation occurs after its burstlike release
Definition
LH
Term
exert negative feedback on the anterior pituitary relative to FSH secretion
Definition
estrogen & progesterone
Term
exert negative feedback on the anterior pituitary relative to FSH secretion
Definition
estrogen & progesterone
Term
stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone & estrogen
Definition
LH
Term
stimulates LH release by the anterior pituitary
Definition
estrogen
Term
maintains the hormonal production of the corpus luteum in a nonpregnant woman
Definition
LH
Term
5-6 L in adult Males & 4-5 L in adult females
Definition
average volume of blood in the body
Term
Blood
Definition
classified as a type of connective tissue because it consists of a nonliving fluid matrix in which living cells are suspended
Term
Plasma
Definition
nonliving fluid matrix; over 90% water; 55% of whole blood
Term
Formed Elements
Definition
living cells found in blood; 3 different types- eythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and platelets; constitue 45% of whole blood
Term
Erythrocytes
Definition
red blood cells, anucleate disc, salmon colored; sacs of hemoglobin molecules that transport the bulk of the oxygen carried in the blood; 4-6 million
Term
Leukocytes
Definition
white blood cells, spherical, nucleated cells; part of the body's nonspecific defenses and the immune system; 4,800-10,800
Term
Platelets
Definition
function in hemostasis (blood clot formation), discoid cytoplasmic fragments containing granules; stain deep purple; 150k-400k
Term
7.35-7.45
Definition
pH level of blood
Term
Constituents of Plasma
Definition
water, salts (electrolytes), proteins

substances transported by blood:
nutrients, waste products of metabolism, respiratory gases, hormones
Term
Granulocytes
Definition
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Term
Neutrophil cells
Definition
nucleus multilobed; inconspicuous cytoplasmic granules; 3,000-7,000
phagocytize bacteria; number increases exponentially during acute infections
Term
Eosinophil cells
Definition
Bilobed nucleus; red cytoplasmic granules; 100-400; kills parasitic worms; destroys antigen-antibody complexes; inactivates some inflammatory chemicals of allergy
Term
Basophil cells
Definition
lobed mucleus; large blue-purple cytoplasmic granules; 20-50; releases histamine and other mediators of inflammation; contains heparin, an anticoagulant
Term
Agranulocytes
Definition
Lymphocytes & Monocytes
Term
Lymphocyte
Definition
Nuclues spherical or indented; pale blue cytoplasm; 1500-3000; mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies
Term
Monocytes
Definition
U-shaped or Kidney-shaped nucleus; gray blue cytoplasm; 100-700; phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in tissues
Term
Formed Elements of Blood
Definition
Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, Granulocytes, Agranulocytes, Platelets
Term
Diapedesis
Definition
ability to move in and out of blood vessels (leukocytes are able to do this)
Term
Amoeboid motion
Definition
ability to wander through body tissues to reach sites of inflammation or tissue destruction (leukocytes use this)
Term
List leukocytes in order from the most abundant to the least abundant
Definition
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas-
neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils
Term
Leukocytosis
Definition
an abnormally high WBC count, may indicate bacterial or viral infection, metabolic disease, hemorrhage, or poisoning by drugs or chemicals.
Term
Leukopenia
Definition
decrease in WBC count (below 4,000/mm3) may indicate typhoid fever, measles, infectious hepatitis or cirrhosis, tuberculosis, or excessive antibiotic or X-ray Tx.
Term
Leukemia
Definition
a malignant disorder of the lymphoid tissues characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal WBCs accompanied by a reduction in the number of RBCs and platelets, is detctable not only by a total WBC count but also a differential WBC count.
Term
Polycythemia
Definition
increase in number of RBCs, may result from bone marrow cancer or from living at high altitudes where less oxygen is available.
Term
Anemia
Definition
a decrease in the number of RBCs
Term
Differential WBC count
Definition
100 WBCs are counted and classified according to type; routine in physical exam and in diagnosing illness, since any abnormality or significant elevation in percentages of WBC types may indicate a problem or the source of pathology.
Term
Conducting a Differential WBC Count
Definition
Percent = #observed/Total #counted (100) x 100
Term
Hematocrit
Definition
Packed Cell Volume (PCV); routinely determined when anemia is suspected
Normal Values-
47(+-7) males
42 (+-5) females
Term
Hemoglobin Concentration
Definition
RBC protein responsible for oxygen transport
Heme=iron-containing portion
Term
Bleeding time
Definition
2-7 minutes (Ivy Method) or 0-5 minutes (Duke Method); how long bleeding lasts; tests ability of platelets to stop bleeding in capillaries & small vessels
Term
Blood Clotting or Coagulation time
Definition
a protective mechanism that minimizes blood loss when blood vessels are reuptured; normally 2-6 minutes
Term
Hemostasis
Definition
1. The injured tissues and platelets release tissue factor (TF) and PF3 respectively, which trigger the clotting mechanism, or cascade.
2. TF & PF interact with other blood protein clotting factors and CA+ to form prothrombin activator, which in turn converts prothrombin to thrombin.
3. Thrombin acts enzymatically to polymerize the soluble fibrinogen proteins into insoluble fibrin, which forms a meshwork of strands that traps the RBCs and forms the basis of the clot.
Term
Blood typing
Definition
blood classification based on the presence of specific glycoproteins on the outer surface of the RBC plasma membrane.

the factors routinely typed for are antigens of the ABO and Rh blood groups which are most commonly involved in transfusion reactions.
Term
Antigens
Definition
proteins in blood; also called agglutinogens; genetically determined
Term
Antibodies/Agglutinins
Definition
react with RBCs bearing different antigens, causing them to be clumped and eventually hemolyzed.
Term
Blood type A
Definition
Antigens present on RBC membranes- A
Antibodies present in plasma- Anti-B
40% white
27% black
28% Asian
Term
Blood type B
Definition
Antigens present on RBC membranes- B
Anitbodies present in plasma- Anti-A
11% white
20% black
27% Asian
Term
Blood Type AB
Definition
Antigens present on RBC membranes- A & B
Anitbodies present in plasma- none
4% white
4% black
5% Asian
Term
Blood Type O
Definition
Antigens present on RBC membranes- neither
Anitbodies present in plasma- Anti-A and Anti-B
47% white
49% black
40% Asian
Term
Atherosclerosis
Definition
the disease process in which the body's blood vessels become increasingly occluded by plaques. Because the plaques narrow the arteries, they can contribute to hypertensive heart disease. They also serve as focal points for the formation of blood clots (thrombi), which may break away and block smaller vessels farther downstream in the circulatory pathway and cause heart attacks or strokes.
Term
Normal cholesterol level
Definition
130-200 mg per 100 ml of plasma
Term
What determines whether blood is bright red or a dull brick red?
Definition
The amount of O2 it's carrying; more O2= brighter red
Term
neutrophils
Definition
most numerous leukocyte
Term
red blood cell
Definition
also called an erythrocyte; anucleate formed element
Term
monocytes & neutrophils
Definition
actively phagocytic leukocytes
Term
monocytes & lymphocytes
Definition
agranulocytes
Term
megakaryocyte
Definition
ancestral cell of platelets
Term
eosinophil
Definition
number rises during parasite infections
Term
basophil
Definition
releases histamine; promotes inflammation
Term
lymphocyte
Definition
many formed in lymphoid tissue
Term
red blood cell
Definition
transports oxygen
Term
plasma
Definition
primarily water, noncellular; the fluid matrix of blood
Term
monocyte
Definition
increases in number during prolonged infections
Term
4 classes of nutrients found in plasma
Definition
sugar, amino acids, lipids and vitamins
Term
2 gases found in plasma
Definition
Oxygen & carbon dioxide
Term
3 ions found in plasma
Definition
Na+, Cl-, Mg2+ (HCO3-)
Term
Describe the consistency and color of plasma
Definition
viscous & sticky; straw colored
Term
100-120 days
Definition
average life span of RBCs
Term
leukocytosis
Definition
abnormal increase in the number of WBCs
Term
polysythemia
Definition
abnormal increase in the number of RBCs
Term
anemia
Definition
condition of too few RBCs or of RBCs with hemoglobin deficiencies
Term
leukopenia
Definition
abnormal decrease in the number of WBC
Term
Erythropoiesis
Definition
RBC production
Term
Erythropoietin
Definition
hormone that stimulates RBC production
Term
Why might patients with kidney disease suffer from anemia? How are they treated?
Definition
When kidneys fail, they also do not produce enough erythropoietin for erythropoiesis. The can be given genetically engineered erythropoietin (EPO)
Term
Anticoagulant
Definition
substance that inhibits blood clotting
Term
Heparin
Definition
the body's natural anticoagulant
Term
Macrocytic hypochromic anemia
Definition
lack of vitamin B12
Term
Microcytic hypochromic anemia
Definition
iron-deficient diet or a bleeding ulcer
Term
Sickle cell anemia
Definition
genetic defect that causes hemoglobin to become sharp/spiky
Term
Lymphocytic leukemia (chronic)
Definition
a type of bone marrow cancer
Term
Eosinophilia
Definition
a tapeworm infestation in the body
Term
Active Immunity
Definition
Immunity produced by an encounter with an antigen; provides immunological memory
Term
Antigen (Ag)
Definition
A substance or part of a substance (living or nonliving) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system, activates the immune system, and reacts with immune cells or their products.
Term
B Lymphocytes (B cells)
Definition
oversee humoral immunity; their descendants differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells.
Term
Cell Mediated Immunity
Definition
Immunity conferred by activated T cells, which directly kill infected or cancerous body cells or cells of foreign grafts and release chemicals that regulate the immune response.
Term
Complement
Definition
A group of bloodborne proteins, which, when activated, enhance the inflammatory and immune responses and may lead to cell lysis.
Term
Cytokines
Definition
small porteins that act as chemical messengers between various parts of the immune system
Term
Diapedesis
Definition
passage of white blood cells through intact vessel walls into tissue
Term
Immunity
Definition
ability of the body to resist many agents (both living and nonliving) that can cause disease; resistance to disease.
Term
Lymph
Definition
protein-containing fluid transported by lymphatic vessels
Term
Lymph node
Definition
small lymphoid organ that filters lymph; contains macrophages and lymphocytes
Term
Lymphatic system
Definition
system consisting of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymph; drains excess tissue fluid from the extracellular space; nodes provide sites for immune surveilance
Term
Opsonization
Definition
a process by which complement proteins or antibodies coat foreign particles, providing "handles" to which phagocyte receptors can bind.
Term
MALT
Definition
mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue- Peyer's patches, the appendix, tonsils, lymphoid follicles in the walls of the bronchi & mucosa of genitourinary organs

Protects passages that are open to the exterior from the never-ending onslaught of foreign matter entering them.
Term
Margination
Definition
Clinging of phagocytes to the inner walls of the capillaries and postcapillary venules.

2nd step in the mobilization of phagocytes after injury.
Term
Passive Immunity
Definition
Short-lived immunity resulting from the introduction of "borrowed antibodies" obtained from an immune animal or human donor; immunological memory is not established.
Term
Spleen
Definition
largest lymphoid organ; provides for lymphocyte proliferation, immune surveillance and response, and blood-cleansing functions.
Term
Interferons (IFNs)
Definition
Proteins released from virus-infected (and other) cells that protect uninfected cells from viral takeover; also inhibit some cancers.
Term
Alveolus
Definition
one of the microscopic air sacs of the lungs
Term
Aortic Body
Definition
receptor in the aortic arch sensitive to changing oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels of the blood.
Term
Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Definition
When dissolved CO2 diffuses into the RBCs, it combines with water, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). H2CO3 is unstable and dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions.
Term
Carbonic Anhydrase
Definition
an enzyme that reversibly catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid.
Term
Bronchioles
Definition
smaller (<1mm in diameter) branching air passageways inside the lungs.
Term
Bronchus
Definition
One of the two large branches of the trachea that leads to the lungs.
Term
Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system
Definition
Chemical system that helps maintain pH homeostasis of the blood.
Term
Carotid body
Definition
a receptor in the common carotid artery sensitive to changing oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH levels of the blood.
Term
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Definition
the amount of air (1,000-1200ml) that can be evacuated from the lungs after a tidal expiration.
Term
External respiration
Definition
movement of oxygen from the lungs to the blood and of carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs.
Term
Internal Respiration
Definition
movement of oxygen from blood to the tissue cells and of carbon dioxide from tissue cells to blood
Term
Pulmonary Ventilation
Definition
movement of air into and out of the lungs so that the gases there are continuously changed and refreshed
Term
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Definition
The amount of air that can be inspired forcibly beyond tidal volume (2100-3100 ml)
Term
Residual Volume (RV)
Definition
the air remaining in the lungs after even a strenuous expiration (1200ml)
Term
Tidal Volume (TV)
Definition
amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions (500ml)
Term
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
Definition
Maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum inspiratory effort. (4200/6000ml)

TV+IRV+ERV+RV
Term
Vital Capacity
Definition
Maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort. (3100/4800ml)

TV+IRV+ERV
Term
Inspiratory Capacity
Definition
Maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration. (2400/3600ml)

TV +IRV
Term
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
Definition
Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration. (1800/2400ml)

ERV+RV
Term
Surfactant
Definition
Secretion produced by certain cells of the alveoli that reduces the suface tension of water molecules, thus preventing the collapse of the alveoli after each expiration.
Term
Bile
Definition
Greenish-yellow or brownish alkaline fluid produced in and secreted by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine; contain bile salts and phospholipids, which aid in digestion
Term
Cecum
Definition
The blind-end pouch at the beginning of the large intestine.
Term
Chyme
Definition
Semi-fluid, creamy mass consisting of partially digested food and gastric juice.
Term
Duodenum
Definition
First part of the small intestine.
Term
Enzyme
Definition
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.
Term
Esophagus
Definition
Muscular tube extending from the layngopharynx through the diaphragm to join the stomach; collapses when not involved in food propulsion.
Term
Gallbladder
Definition
Sac beneath the right lobe of the liver used for bile storage.
Term
Gastric Glands
Definition
produce gastric juices
Term
Glottis
Definition
opening between the vocal chords in the larynx
Term
Ileum
Definition
terminal part of the small intestine, between the jejunum and the cecum of the large intestine.
Term
Jejunum
Definition
The part of the small intestine between the duodenum and the ileum.
Term
Large Intestine
Definition
Portion of the digestive tract extending from the ileocecal valve to the anus; includes the cecum, appendix, colon, rectum and anal canal.
Term
Liver
Definition
Loved accessory organ that overlies the stomach; produces bile to help digest fat, and serves other metabolic and regulatory functions.
Term
Mastication
Definition
chewing
Term
Pancreas
Definition
Gland located behind the stomach, between the spleen and the duodenum; produces both endocrine and exocrine secretions.
Term
Peristalsis
Definition
Progressive, wavelike contractions that move foodstuffs through the alimentary tube organs (or that move other substances through other hollow body organs).
Term
Pharynx
Definition
Muscular tube extending from the region posterior to the nasal cavities to the esophagus.
Term
Rectum
Definition
Term
Rugae
Definition
elevations or ridges, as in stomach mucosa
Term
Salivary gland
Definition
Term
Sigmoid Colon
Definition
Term
Small Intestine
Definition
Convoluted tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve where it joins the large intestine; the site where digestion is completed and virtually all absorption occurs.
Term
Sphincter
Definition
a circular muscle surrounding an opening; acts as a valve
Term
Stomach
Definition
temporary reservoir in the gastrointestinal tract where chemical breakdown of proteins begins and food is converted into chyme.
Term
Villus
Definition
Fingerlike projections of the small intestinal mucosa that tremendously increase its surface area for absorption.
Term
Acidosis
Definition
state of abnormally high hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid.
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion by the kidneys.
Term
Alkalosis
Definition
state of abnormally low hydrogen ion concentration in the extracellular fluid
Term
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH/vasopressin)
Definition
hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary; stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water, reducing urine volume.
Term
Atrial Natriuetic Peptie (ANP)
Definition
a hormone released by certain cells of the heart atria that reduces blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting nearly all events that promote vasoconstriction and Na+ and water retention
Term
Bowman's Capsule (Glomerular Capsule)
Definition
Double-walled cup at end of a renel tubule; encloses a glomerulus
Term
Buffer
Definition
chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions.
Term
Collecting Duct
Definition
Term
Distal Convoluted Tubule
Definition
Term
Electrolyte
Definition
chemical substances, such as salts, acids and bases, that ionize and dissociate in water and are capable of conducting an electrical current.
Term
Kidney
Definition
Term
Loop of Henle
Definition
Term
Major Calyx
Definition
Term
Minor Calyx
Definition
cup-shaped areas that enclose the papillae of the pyramids
Term
Micturition
Definition
Urination, or voiding; emptying of the bladder
Term
Nephron
Definition
structural and functional unit of the kidney; consists of the glomerulus and renal tubule
Term
pH
Definition
the measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution
Term
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Definition
Term
Renal Column
Definition
inward extensions of cortical tissue, separate the pyramids
Term
Renal Cortex
Definition
Most superficial regin of the kidney; light in color; has granular appearance
Term
Renal Medulla
Definition
deep to the cortex; darker, redish-brown, exhibits cone-shaped tissue masses called renal pyramids
Term
Renal Pelvis
Definition
a funnel-shaped tube, continuous with the ureter leaving the hilum
Term
Renal Pyramid
Definition
appear striped because they are formed almost entirely of parallel bundles of microscopic urine-collecting tubules and capillaries.
Term
Ureter
Definition
tube that carries urine from kidney to the bladder
Term
Urethra
Definition
canal through which urine passes from the bladder to outside the body.
Term
Cytokines
Definition
These are released by activated T cells and macrophages to mobilize immune cells and attract other leukocytes into the area.
Term
Our genes
Definition
This determines what specific foreign substances our adaptive immune system will be able to recognize and resist.
Term
macrophages
Definition
these predominate at the sites of chronic infections
Term
promote an increase in blood pressure
Definition
Aldosterone will_____________________?
Term
cross-linking cell-bound antigens on red blood cells when blood types are properly matched
Definition
Antibody functions do NOT include...
Term
bone marrow
Definition
B lymphocytes develop immunocompetence in the__________?
Term
packed cells
Definition
Blood volume restorers do NOT include
Term
left atrium
Definition
Blood within the pulmonary veins returns to ______________?
Term
greater than the pressure in the atmosphere
Definition
Complete the following statement. Air moves out of the lungs when the pressure inside the lungs is...
Term
0.5 to 1 micrometer thick
Definition
For gas exchange to be efficient, the respiratory membrane must be how thick?
Term
decreased delivery of oxygen
Definition
If cardiac muscle is deprived of its normal blood supply, damage would primarily result from what?
Term
cortisol
Definition
Mineralocorticoid is to aldosterone as glucocorticoid is to __________________?
Term
ilium of the small intestine
Definition
Peyer's patches are found in the ______________.
Term
hepatic portal system
Definition
Several hormones are synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported to the anterior pituitary gland. The mechanism of transportation from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland is through the __________________________.
Term
pump blood with greater pressure
Definition
The left ventricular wall of the heart is thicker than the right wall in order to _______________________.
Term
Dalton's law
Definition
The statement, "in a mixture of gases, the total pressure is the sum of the individual pressers of gases in the mixture" paraphrases _________________________.
Term
directly fight antigens
Definition
The thymus is the only lymphoid organ that does not
Term
morning
Definition
The time of day most hazardous for heart attacks is
Term
entering some cells and binding to intracellular receptors within the nuclei.
Definition
Thyroid hormones exerts its influences by
Term
The recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inspiration and the inward pull of surface tension due to the film of alveolar fluid
Definition
Unlike inspiration, expiration is a passive act because no muscular contractions are involved. Expiration, however depends on two factors. Name them.
Term
The natural tendency for the lungs to recoil and the surface tension of the alveolar fluid.
Definition
Describe the forces that act to pull the lungs away from the thorax wall and thus collapse the lungs.
Term
reactivity with an antibody
Definition
Which is characteristic of complete antigens?
Term
Kaposi's sarcoma
Definition
Which kind is not a a form of lung cancer?
Term
emotional state
Definition
Which is not one of the three main factors influencing blood pressure?
Term
28 weeks
Definition
A premature baby usually has difficulty breathing. However, the respiratory system is developed enough for survival by how many weeks?
Term
the first node to receive lymph from an area suspected to be cancerous
Definition
A sentinal node is _______________________.
Term
ACTH
Definition
Secretion of this is regulated by a hypothalmic secretion.
Term
ADH
Definition
This hormone is inhibited by alcohol.
Term
receive any blood type in moderate amounts except that with the Rh antigen
Definition
An individual who is blood type AB negative can
Term
plasma cells
Definition
Antibodies that act against a particular foreign substance are released by ___________________.
Term
membranes "wear out" and the cells become damaged
Definition
As red blood cells age ____________________.
Term
Respiratory exchanges are made through the placenta
Definition
Because the lungs are filled with fluid during fetal life, which of the following statements is true regarding respiratory exchange?
Term
is abolished when abnormally high CO2 levels perisist
Definition
Brain blood flow autoregulation ________________________.
Term
natural killer cells
Definition
Cancer cells and virus-infected body cells can be killed before activation of adaptive immunity by __________________.
Term
producing progeny cells that include plasma cells and memory cells
Definition
Cells respond to the initial antigen challenge by _________________.
Term
Protein acts as the link between first and second messengers.
Definition
Cells that respond to peptide hormones usually do so through a sequence of biochemical reactions involving receptor and kinase activation. In order for cells to respond it is necessary for first and second messengers to communicate. How is this possible?
Term
possible activation of several different second-messenger systems
Definition
Cellular responses to hormones that initiate second-messenger systems include _____________________.
Term
hormones
Definition
Chemical substances secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids and that regulate the metabolic function of other cells in the body are called_______________.
Term
results in the formation of plasma cells
Definition
Clonal selection of B cells _________________________.
Term
has gap junctions that allow it to act as a functional syncytium
Definition
Compared to skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle ___________________.
Term
opsonization
Definition
Complement proteins and antibodies coat a microorganism and provide binding sites, enabling macrophages and neutrophils to phagocytize the organism. This phenomenon is called _______________________.
Term
are the only T cells that can directly attack and kill other cells
Definition
Cytotoxic T cells __________________________.
Term
AV node
Definition
Damage to the ___________________ is referred to as heart block.
Term
include allergic contact dermatitis
Definition
Delay hypersensitivities ______________________.
Term
islets of Langerhans
Definition
Digestive tract-associated lymphatic tissue includes all of the following except _____________________.
Term
some calcium enters the cell from extracellular space and triggers the release of larger amounts of calcium from intracellular stores
Definition
During contraction of heart muscle cells _____________________.
Term
blood flows passively through the atria and the open AV valves into the ventricles
Definition
During the period of ventricular filling __________________.
Term
voluntary cortical control
Definition
Factors that influence the rate and depth of breathing include ________________________.
Term
dartos
Definition
This muscle layer will contract to wrinkle the scrotum surface
Term
seminiferous tubules
Definition
The site of sperm production
Term
cremaster
Definition
Bands of skeletal muscle that arise from the internal oblique muscles of the trunk & elevate the testes.
Term
myoid cells
Definition
By contracting rhythmically, these cells may hep to squeeze sperm and testicular fluids through the tubules and out of the testes.
Term
epididymis
Definition
Place where sperm mature
Term
corpus cavernosa
Definition
erectile tissue in the male
Term
bulbourthral glands
Definition
Produces an alkaline secretion that is released before ejaculation.
Term
prostate gland
Definition
Produces enzymes that activate the sperm.
Term
seminal vesicle
Definition
This accessory gland produces most of the volume of semen. (70%)
Term
meiosis
Definition
Consists of 2 consecutive nuclear divisions that follow one round of DNA replication. Its product is 4 daughter cells instead of 2, each with half as many chromosomes as typical body cells.
Term
meiosis 1
Definition
reduction division of meiosis
Term
meiosis 2
Definition
equational division of meiosis
Term
Type A Spermatogonium
Definition
Cell that will be the next spermatogonial stem cell.
Term
Spermatids
Definition
Cell type that is formed when meiosis II is completed.
Term
Secondary spermatocytes
Definition
Cell type formed when Meiosis I is completed.
Term
corpus luteum
Definition
Which produces and releases estrogen and progesterone?
Term
primary oocyte
Definition
"Frozen" oocyte in meiosis I
Term
Secondary oocyte
Definition
Stage of development that stops in meosis II in women.
Term
fertilized oocyte (ovum)
Definition
Completes meiosis II in women
Term
They have the same number of chromosomes.
Definition
Human egg and sperm are similar in that:
Term
when leutinizing hormone levels have peaked and start to decline.
Definition
Each month, the time when a female is first fertile is when...
Term
blood levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease.
Definition
Normally menstruation occurs when...
Term
Interstitial (Leydig) cells
Definition
The cells in the testis that produce testosterone are the:
Term
Sustentacular (Sertoli) cells
Definition
Divide the seminiferous tubule into two compartments, the basal compartment and the adluminal compartment. Release androgen binding protein (ABP) when stimulated by FSH.
Term
secondary oocyte
Definition
In the process of ovulation, what is actually ejected from the ovary?
Term
Graafian follicle
Definition
The name given to a mature ovarian follicle that is about to ovulate is...
Term
spermatozoa
Definition
Mature sperm are termed___________________.
Term
Interphase
Definition
When during the cell life cycle does DNA replicate?
Term
chromosome
Definition
After DNA replicates, EACH strand is referred to as a __________________.
Term
Interkinesis
Definition
The period between the end of meiosis I and the beginning of meiosis II is known as ___________________.
Term
anaphase II
Definition
When do sister chromatids separate during meiosis?
Term
spermatid
Definition
The flagellum of the sperm develops in the ________________.
Term
gubernaculum
Definition
Which structure plays an important role in causing descent of the testes in a male fetus?
Term
parasympathetic motor neurons
Definition
The events associated with erection of the penis are directly controlled by ___________________.
Term
sympathetic motor neurons
Definition
Constriction of the urethral sphincter during ejaculation is controlled by ___________________________.
Term
adrenal cortex
Definition
Besides the gonads, which endocrine gland is another source of testosterone?
Term
absence of testosterone
Definition
Female genitals develop in a fetus as a result of the ___________________.
Term
yolk sac, spleen and liver
Definition
Sources of blood cells in a fetus include ____________________.
Term
accumulation of hemoglobin breakdown products
Definition
The excess bilirubin associated with jaundice usually results from ________________________________.
Term
helps maintain water content of blood
Definition
What is a role of albumin?
Term
thrombopoietin
Definition
A hormone associated with maturation of white blood cells is _____________________.
Term
most leukocytes
Definition
Which cells routinely exit the bloodstream by slipping out of capillaries?
Term
reticulocyte
Definition
Which cell count is the best indicator of recent rate of RBC production?
Term
to reduce O2 diffusion distance
Definition
Why does a red blood cell eject its nucleus?
Term
cells
Definition
Blood is a tissue consisting mostly of _________________.
Term
low O2 in blood
Definition
ALL anemics have this in common.
Term
essential to DNA synthesis
Definition
Why are B vitamins important to the overall process of erythropoiesis?
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