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AP Exam 1
Chapter 1,2,and 3
89
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
01/26/2015

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
- Define the following: anatomy, physiology
Definition
anatomy is the study of structure of the body, physiology is the study of the function of the body
Term
 Steps of the Scientific Method
Definition
  1. observation
  2. hypothesis
  3. predictions
  4. test
  5. hypothesis supported(further test) or hypothesis rejected(new or revise hypothesis)
Term
   - Know all levels of organization
Definition
• Subatomic Particles – electrons, protons, and neutrons
• Atom – hydrogen atom, lithium atom, etc.
• Molecule – water molecule, glucose molecule, etc.
• Macromolecule – protein molecule, DNA molecule, etc.
• Organelle – mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, nucleus, etc.
• Cell – muscle cell, nerve cell, etc.
• Tissue – simple squamous eithelium, adipose tissue, etc.
• Organ – skin, femur, heart, kidney, etc.
• Organ System – skeletal system, digestive system, etc.
• Organism – the human
Term
- Know all characteristics of life
 
Definition
Movement – change in position; motion
• Responsiveness – reaction to a change
• Growth – increase in body size; no change in shape
• Reproduction – production of new organisms and new cells

• Respiration – obtaining oxygen; removing carbon dioxide; releasing energy from foods

  • Digestion – breakdown of food substances into simpler forms
• Absorption – passage of substances through membranes and into body fluids
• Circulation – movement of substances in body fluids
• Assimilation – changing of absorbed substances into chemically different forms
• Excretion – removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions
Term

 Be able to understand the 5 environmental factors for the maintenance of life

 
Definition
water food oxygen heat pressure
Term
Negative versus Positive feedback homeostasis (know everything about homeostasis)
Definition

 

Positive feedback increases the actions of the body, short-lived, don't require continuous adjustments. ex: blood clotting & child birth. Negative feedback prevents sudden, severe changes in the body, corrects body back to the set point, causes opposite of bodily disruption to occur. ”negative”. most common ex: body temperature blood pressure &glucose regulation; Homeostasis is maintaining of a stable internal environment( contain control mechanisms that have 3 parts: receptors(provide info about the stimuli), control center ( tells what a particular value should be(set point)), and effector ( elicits response that change conditions in the internal environment)

Term
Body cavities and the organs that are found in the body
Definition
  • cranial cavities- brain
  • vertebral cavity- spinal cord and surrounded by the vertebrae
  • thoraic cavity- lungs and mediastinum(region between lungs)- heart esophagus, trachea, and thymus
  • diaphragm- separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity
  • mediastinum- separates the thorax into two compartments which contain the right and left longs
  • abdominal cavity - stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder,kidney, small and large intestine
  • pelvic cavity- terminal end of the large intestines, urinary bladder, and internal reproductive organs
Term
Different types of Serous membranes
Definition
visceral layer-covers an organ
parietal layer- lines cavity or body wall

thoracic membranes - visceral pleura, parietal pleura visceral pericardium, parietal pericardium

abdominopelvic membranes- parietal peritoneum viscera; peritoneum

Term
Basic functions of all organ systems 
Definition
  • integumentary system- sensory receptors body temperature vitman D, protects, ex.skin hair nails.
  • skeletal system- support and protective shields for tissues, movement
  • musclar system- heat production, movement
  • nervous system- sensory information
  • endocrine system- secretes hormones
  • cardiovascular system- transports gases, nutrients, hormones and wastes
  • lymphatic system- transports fluids from tissues back to the blood stream, absorbs fats from the digestive system
  • digestive system- receives foods and break them down into simpler forms
  • urinary system- removes waste maintains body water and electrolyte balance
  • respiratory system- exchange gases between the blood and the air
  • reproductive system- manufacture and transport sex cells; produce gametes
Term
- Different types of radiation
 
Definition
 
Alpha(α)–moves slowly and cannot penetrate easily (weakest form)
Beta (β) – consists of electrons (small particles) travels faster and penetrates deeper
Gamma (γ) – most penetrating from
Ionizing radiation – which releases electrons and disrupts physiology at the chemical level
Term
- Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds
Definition

Ionic Bond

An attraction between a cation and an anion; Typical reaction for salts; Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom

Covalent Bonds
 Formed when atoms share electrons
Hydrogen Bonds
A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule; Formed between water molecules; Important for protein and nucleic acid structure
 
Term
Number of covalent bonds between the following elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon) 
Definition

• Hydrogen atoms form single bonds

• Oxygen atoms form two bonds
• Nitrogen atoms form three bonds
• Carbon atoms form four bonds 

Term
Polar versus Non-polar molecules
Definition
Polar Molecules
•A covalent bond where electrons are not shared equally
Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
Wateris an important polar molecule
Term
Properties of water
Definition
Water consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom held together by covalent bonds
Term
Synthesis reaction versus Decomposition (degradation) reaction
Definition
Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure is formed ; A+B = AB
Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to form a simpler chemical structure;
AB = A+B
Term
3 factors that influence rate of chemical reaction
Definition
  1. Temperature
  2. Concentration of reactants and products
  3. Catalysts (Ex: Enzymes)
Term
pH scale. Understand what makes a solution acidic or alkaline (basic)
Definition
pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution
Acidic – pH less than 7; indicates a greater concentration of H+
Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7; indicates a greater concentration of OH-
Term
Homeostatic range of blood pH. Alkalosis vs Acidosis
Definition
Alkalosis occurs when blood pH rises to 7.5 – 7.8
Acidosis occurs when blood pH drops to 7.0 – 7.3
Term
Difference between inorganic and organic molecules
Definition
Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
Organic molecules
• Contain C and H
• Usually larger than inorganic molecules
• Dissolve in water and organic liquids
• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules
• Generally do not contain C and H
• Usually smaller than organic molecules
• Usually dissociate in water, forming ions
• Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts
Term
Know the roles of the following in the body: water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, inorganic salts
Definition
Water
• Most abundant compound in living material • Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human
 • Major component of all body fluids
• Medium for most metabolic reactions
• Important role in transporting chemicals in the body • Absorbs and transports heat
Oxygen (O2)
• Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities
• Necessary for survival
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Waste product released during metabolic reactions • Must be removed from the body
Inorganic salts
• Abundant in body fluids
• Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca+2, etc.) • Play important roles in metabolism
Term
Dehydration vs hydrolysis 
Definition

 Dehydration synthesis
– Formation of large molecules by the removal of water – Monomers are joined to form polymers

Hydrolysis
– Breakdown of large molecules by the addition of water – Polymers are broken down to monomers
Term
Structure and function of the phospholipid bilayer
Definition

Phospholipid bilayer – more complicated structure where 2 layers form

– Hydrophilic heads point outward
– Hydrophobic tails point inward toward each other
Term
- Why are cells so small?
Definition
Most cells are relatively small due reliance on diffusion of substances in and out of cells
• Rate of diffusion affected by – Surface area available
– Temperature
– Concentration gradient
– Distance
Term
 Cell Cycle- interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis
Definition

 Interphase

when the cell grows and maintains its routine functions as well as its contributions to the internal environment; the longest stage of the cell cycle;Very active period; Cell grows;Cell maintains routine functions; cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division; cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic divison

Mitosis (division of nucleus): Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell;Nucleus divides;when the nuclear contents divide in an event called “karyokinesis”, which means nucleus movement; continuous process that is described in 4 stages 

Cytokinesis( Division of cytoplasm)- the cytoplasm is apportioned into the two daughter cells

 

 

 

 

 

 

Term
Phases of Mitosis
Definition

 

Prophase- the chromatin fibers condense, making the individual chromosomes visible; centrioles move to opposite sides of cytoplasm; nuclear membrane and nucleolus disperse; microtubules assemble and associate with centrioles and chromatids of chromosomes;

Metaphase- spindle fibers from the centrioles attach to the centromeres of each chromosome; chromosomes align midway between the centrioles;

Anaphase-centromeres separate, and chromatids of the chromosomes separate; spindle fibers shorten and pull these new individual chromosomes toward centrioles;

Telophase- chromosomes elongate and form chromatin threads; nuclear membranes form around each chromosome set; nucleoli form; microtubules break down

 
Term
- Functions of checkpoints
Definition
1. G1/S checkpoint – Cell “decides” to divide
– Primary point for external signal influence
2. G2/M checkpoint
– Cell makes a commitment to mitosis
– Assesses success of DNA replication
3. Late metaphase (spindle) checkpoint
– Cell ensures that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle
Term
 Benign vs malignant cancer
Definition
Benign – usually remains localized; places like a lump, usually interfering with the function of healthy tissue
 Malignant – invasive and can metastasize; cancerous; extends into surrounding tissue
Term
- Tumor-suppressor and Proto-oncogenes
Definition
Tumor-suppressor- normally holds mitosis in check; if removed or inactivated, it lifts control of the cell cycle and uncontrolled cell division leads to cancer results
Proto-oncogenes- abnormal variant of genes that normally control the cell cycle, but are overexpressed, increasing cell division rate
Term
 The role of p53 
Definition
Plays a key role in G1 checkpoint and G2 checkpoint; tries to repaid DNA, if failed then apotosis triggers
Term
- Stem cells: Totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent, unipotent
Definition
Totipotent- can give rise to every cell type
 
Pluripotent- can give rise to a restricted number of cell cycles

Multipotent- adult stem ells that can differentiate into a limited number of specialized tissues (brain stem cells: neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes)
 
Unipotent- adult stem cells that give rise only to one specialized cell type (skin cells)
Term

 

-         matter

 

Definition
-anything that has weight and take up space,
Term
Element
Definition
fundamental spaces that which matter is composed of,
Term
Atom
Definition

-         smallest complete units of elements,

Term
Atomic Number
Definition
the number of protons in the atoms of a particular element
Term
Atomic Weight
Definition
number of protons+number of neutrons in a element
Term
Molecule
Definition
two or more atoms combined ex. hydrogen
Term
Compound
Definition

-         particle formed when two or more atoms of different elements chemically combine ex carbon dioxide, salt-sodium chloride,

Term
Isotope
Definition

-         atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights,

Term
Ion
Definition
an electrically charged atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable
Term
Cation
Definition

-         a positively charged ion formed when an atom loses electrons,

Term
Anion
Definition
a negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains electrons
Term
Chemical reactions
Definition

-         - occur when chemical bonds form or break among atoms,ions, or molecules,

Term
Reactants
Definition
the starting materials of the reaction-the atoms ions or molecules,
Term
Products
Definition
substances formed at the en of a chemical reaction
Term
Electrolytes
Definition
substances that releases ions in water,
Term
Salts
Definition
electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base
Term
Buffer
Definition
can resist changes in pH
Term
Cellulose
Definition
- found in plants and made from glucose differ from starch by how monosaccharides are linked
Term
Starch
Definition
found in plants and made from glucose,
Term
Glycogen
Definition
highly branched polysaccharide that stores  energy in animal cells for rapid release when needed
Term
Triglycerides(fats)
Definition
used primarily for energy most common lipid in body
Term
Trans fat
Definition
process that converts liquid vegetable oils into solids,
Term
Denaturation
Definition

-         protein loses structure and function due to enviromental conditions and cannot be regained

Term
The monomers of all 5 organic molecules
Definition

Carbohydrates- monassocharides (glucose)

Lipids- fatty acids and glycerol

Proteins- amino acids

Nucleic Acids (RNA and DNA)- nucleotides

Term
The fucntions of all 5 organic molecules
Definition

Carbohydrates- provides energy that cells require

Lipids-fats, oils, waxes, and steroids: make them stronger

Proteins-structural materials, energy sources, chemical messengers (hormones)

Nucleic Acids- store information for the synthesis of proteins and control cell activities

Term
4 Levels of Protein Structure
Definition

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary

Term
Simple Diffusion
Definition

the tendency of atoms, molecules, and ions in a liquid or air solution to move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration

Term
Facilitated diffsuion
Definition
- includes carrier molecules that transport some substances into or out of cells, from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration
Term
Osmosis
Definition

the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane into a compartment containing solute that cannot cross the same membrane.

Term
Filtration
Definition

forces molecules through membranes; commonly used to separate solids from water.

Term
Active Transport
Definition
movement across a concentration gradient; requires energy, which comes from cellular metabolism
Term
Endocytosis
Definition

molecules or other particles that are too large to enter a cell by diffusion or active transport are conveyed in a vesicle that forms from a section of the cell membrane

Term
Exocytosis
Definition
essentially the reverse of endocytosis; substances made in the cell are packaged into a vesicle, which then fuses with the cell membrane, releasing its contents outside the cell; cells secrete some proteins by exocytosis
Term
Osmotic pressure
Definition

the ability of osmosis to generate enough pressure to lift a volume of water

Term
Isotonic
Definition

any solution that has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids                                

Term
Hypertonic
Definition
Solutions that have a higher osmotic pressure than body fluids
Term
Hypotonic
Definition

Lower osmotic pressure than body fluids

Term
Sodium potassium pump
Definition
 carrier proteins that transport substances from regions of lower concentrations to higher concentrations; transports sodium ions out of cells and potassium ions into cells
Term
Pinocytosis
Definition
when cells take in tiny droplets of liquid from their surroundings, which causes a small portion of cell membrane to indent
Term
Phagocytosis
Definition

- when the cell takes in solids rather than liquid

Term
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Definition

moves very specific types of particles into the cells; this process uses protein molecules that extend through the cell membrane and are exposed on its outer surface

Term
Apoptosis
Definition
form of cell death because it is a normal part of development; it sculpts organs from tissues that naturally overgrow
Term
Nucleus
Definition

contains the genetic material (DNA) that directs the activities of the cell; enclosed in a double-layered nuclear envelope that has nuclear pores that control movement of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm

Term
Cytoplasm
Definition

contains networks of membranes and organelles suspended in fluid, and may also contain nonliving cellular products, such as nutrients and pigments called inclusions

Term
Plasma (cell) membrane
Definition
maintains integrity if the cell, controls the passage of material into and out of the cell, and provides for signal transduction
Term
Cytoskelton
Definition

 

supportive framework

 

Term
Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Definition

transports materials within the cell, store, and transport newly synthesized lipids

Term
Transport vesicles
Definition

moves to the cell membrane, where it fuses and releases its contents to the outside of the cell as a secretion; others may transport glycoproteins to organelles in the cell

Term
Secretory vesicles
Definition

Release substance outside the cell, but also provides new cell membrane

Term
Golgi Apparatus
Definition

- packages and modifies protein molecules for transport and secretion

Term
Lysosomes
Definition

contain enzymes capable of digesting worn cellular parts or substances that enter cells

Term
Peroxisomes
Definition
contain enzymes called peroxidases, important in the breakdown of many organic molecules
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
synthesize proteins
Term
Mitochondria
Definition

release energy from food molecules and convert the energy into a usable form

Term
Centrosome
Definition

helps distribute chromosomes to new cells during cell division, initiates formation of cilia

Term
Cilia
Definition
propel fluid over cellular surface; short hair like projections
Term
How does cancer develop?
Definition

Mutation of proto-oncogenes into an oncogene

Mutation of Tumor

Suppression gener

Mutated p53

Telomere does not shorten

Term
Charges and Locations of sub-atomic particles
Definition

Protons- positve charged; located in nucleus

Electrons- negative charged; located around the nucleus

Neutrons- neutrally charged; located in the nucleus

Term
Flagella
Definition
provudes motility to sperm; long hair like projections
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