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AP Bast Test 2
Grr... noooo moooooore... neeed breaaak.....
131
Anatomy
Undergraduate 3
12/04/2010

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Term
Action Potential
Definition
A large transient depolarization event, including polarity reversal, that is conducted along the membrane of a muscle cell or a nerve fiber.
Term
Afferent Neuron
vs
Efferent Neuron
Definition
Sensory
vs
Motor
Term
Association Neuron (aka interneuron)
Definition
decision making neuron (understands set point)
Term
Astrocyte
Definition
The most abundant and versatile glial cells. Anchor and brace neurons and cover nearby capillaries.

Also control chemical environment around neurons by "mopping up" leaked potassium ions. Also Participate in information processing in the brain.
Term
Axon Collateral
Definition
Occasional branches along an axon
Term
Beta Receptors
Definition
Found in smooth muscles, can have multiple levels of contraction
Term
Bone Remodeling
Definition
Bone deposit and resorption.
Term
Breaks down ACh into acetyl and choline, products that cannot activate the ACh receptor.
Definition
AcetylCholinesterase
Term
CSF
Definition
blood plasma that contains glucose, oxygen, vitamins, and ions (Na+, Cl-, Mg2+, etc.)
Term
Canaliculi
Definition
Interconnected tiny canals with extracellular fluid.
Term
Cell Body
Definition
consists of a spherical nucleus with a conspicuous nucleolus surrounded by cytoplasm; contains the usual organelles; aka parikaryon or soma.
Term
Cerebrum
Definition
The cerebral hemispheres and the structures of the diencephalon.
Term
Contralateral
Definition
Right controls left and left controls right.
Term
Dendrites
Definition
the main receptive or input regions; they provide an enormous surface area for receiving signals from other neurons. Always unmyelinated.
Term
Depolarization
Definition
Loss of a state of polarity; loss or reduction of negative membrane potential
Term
Diencephalon
Definition
aka interbrain; The part of the forebrain between the cerebral hemispheres and the mibrain including the thalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus.
Term
Dorsal root ganglion cell
Definition
Peripheral collection of cell bodies of first-order afferent neurons whose central axons enter the spinal cord.
Term
Dura Mater
Definition
Periosteal & Meningeal layer
Term
Electrical Junctions
Definition
A type of gap junction; an electric passageway between two adjacent cells formed by transmembrane proteins called connexons.
Term
Electrochemical Gradient
Definition
The combined difference in concentration and charge; influences the distribution and direction of diffusion of ions.
Term
Endosteum
Definition
A thin membrane that lines the internal bone surface facing the medullary cavity. It contains a single layer of cells and a small amount of connective tissue.
Term
Ependymal Cell
Definition
line and form a barrier around CSF
Term
Epiphyseal Line
Definition
Line of compact bone across epiphysis (p. 176)
Term
Five specific types of neurons and their general classification
Definition
Unipolar:
Dorsal root ganglion cell

Multipolar:
Perkinje cell
Pyramidal cell

Bipolar:
Olfactory Cell
Retinal Cell
Term
GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid)
Definition
The chief inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Term
Ganglion
Definition
Clusters of cell bodies located in the PNS
Term
Hormones
Definition
Steroidal or amino acid based molecules released to the blood that at as chemical messengers to regulate specific body functions.
Term
How fast does a myelinated signal travel?
Definition
100 m/s
Term
How is a refractory period related to the size of a stimulus?
Definition
The larger the stimulus the larger the refractory period.
Term
How long does a refractory period take?
Definition
One millisecond
Term
Medulla Oblongata
Definition
The inferior most part of the brainstem.
Term
Medullary Cavity or Marrow Cavity
Definition
A hollow cylindrical space within the diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.
Term
Meninges
Definition
Protective coverings of the central nervous system; from teh most external to the most internal: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
Term
Metaphysis
Definition
Inbetween the epiphysis and diaphysis; holds the epiphyseal line.
Term
Microglial cell
Definition
Can transform into phagocytes in areas of neural damage or inflammation;extension of the immune system, protects from pathogens.
Term
Midbrain
Definition
aka mesencephalon; region of the brain stem between the diencephalon and the pons.
Term
Monamine Oxidase (MAO)
Definition
Play a vital role in the inactivation of neurotransmitters, ~in particular norepinephrine (NEED TO KNOW)~
Term
Motor Neuron (aka efferent neuron)
Definition
Information going out (response)
Term
Neurohormones
Definition
Any hormone created or released by neurons into the blood.
Term
Neurotransmitter
Definition
Chemical messenger released by neurons that may, upon binding to receptors of neurons or effector cells, stimulate or inhibit those neurons or effector cells.
Term
Nodes of Ranvier
Definition
Bare areas about 1mm apart along a nerve inbetween Schwann cells.
Term
Norepinephrine
Definition
A catecholamine neurotransmitter and adrenal medullary hormone, associated with sympathetic nervous system activation.
Term
Nutrient Foramina
Definition
Exactly what you would think. Holes where blood vessels go into bone.
Term
Oligodendrocyte
Definition
Provides a myelin sheath to a few dendrites, to insulate to keep electric signal from shorting. Located in the CNS.
Term
Osteoid
Definition
Organic unmineralized bone matrix; makes up 1/3 of the bone matrix, consists of ground substance and collagen fibers.
Term
Osteoprogenitor Cell
Definition
Stem cell whose divisions produce osteoblasts
Term
Paracrine
Definition
A chemical messenger that acts locally within the same tissue and is rapidly destroyed. Examples are prostaglandins and nitric oxide.
Term
Perforating Canal
Definition
Connect the blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to those in the central canals and the medullary cavity
Term
Perforating Fibers
Definition
Connect the periosteum to the bone; consists of thick bundles of collagen fibers that extend into the extracellular bone matrix.
Term
Periosteum
Definition
Surrounds long bone where it isn't covered by cartilage. Protects bone, assists in fracture repair, helps nourish bone tissue, and serves as the attachment point for ligaments.
Term
Pia Mater
Definition
follows gyri and sucli; innermost membrane
Term
Pons
Definition
The part of the brain stem connecting the medulla oblongata with the midbrain, providing linkage between upper and lower levels of the central nervous system.
Term
Practice Drawing her neural communication slide.
Definition
-
Term
Presynaptic cell vs post synaptic cell
Definition
pre sends, post receives signal
Term
Progression of Bone Cells
Definition
Osteogenic Cells (origin; come from mesenchyme), Osteoblasts (build up), Osteocytes (exist), Osteoclasts (break down)
Term
Refractory Period (2 terms)
Definition
Absolute Refractory Period- Period following stimulation during which no additional action potential can be evoked. Relative refractory period-follows the absolute refractory period; interval when a threshold for action potential stimulation is markedly elevated.
Term
Reservoir Model For Controlled Variables
Definition
Intake or Synthesis- Pool (<->in and out of storage) - Metabolism or excretion
Term
Sacrificial Bonds
Definition
Bonds that break easily with force to dissipate energy from impact.
Term
Saltatory Conduction
Definition
Leaping conduction, jumps from node to node between Schwann cells. About 30 times faster than continuous conduction (conduction without myelin sheaths.
Term
Satellite Cell
Definition
Surround neuron cell bodies in the PNS. Thought to have many of the same functions of astrocytes in the CNS.
Term
Sensory Neuron (afferent neuron)
Definition
creat/carry information that goes in (stimulus) towards the CNS.
Term
Sharpey’s Fibers
Definition
Fibers that connect periosteum to compact bone
Term
Show the homeostatic feedback cycle for when blood calcium gets low (6)
Definition
Low Blood Ca (stimulus) -> Calcium Receptors in parathyroid gland pick up on this (sensor) -> Integrating Center of Parathyroid Gland Releases Parathyroid Hormone -> Increase osteoclast Activity (effector) -> Increased bone resorption -> Increase blood Ca
Term
Synapse
Definition
A region where communication occurs between two neurons, or between a neuron and a target cell. A -synaptic cleft- is the region between the two cells.
Term
The 3 parts of the brainstem
Definition
Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata
Term
The 4 types of bone shapes
Definition
Long, short, flat, irregular
Term
The 7 Parts of a long bone
Definition
Diaphysis, Epiphysis, Metaphysis, Articular Cartilage, Periosteum, Medullary Cavity, Endosteum
Term
The The 6 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System
Definition
Support, Protection, Assistance in movement, Mineral homeostasis (storage and release), Blood Cell Production (red bone marrow), Triglyceride Storage (yellow bone marrow)
Term
The five types of neuroglial cells
Definition
Astrocyte, Schwann/Satellite, Microglial, Oligodendrocyte, Ependymal
Term
The four parts of an osteon
Definition
Lamella-concentric ring of hard, calcified extracellular matrix found in compact bone.

Lacunae-a small hollow space where osteocytes lie

Canaliculus-small channel or canal, as in bones, where they connect lacunae.

Central Canal-A circular channel running longitudinally in the center of an osteon of mature compact bone.
Term
The neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction.
Definition
Acetyl-Choline
Term
Three General Types of Neurons
Definition
Multipolar-goes out in many directions
Bipolar-
Unipolar-looks like a T
Term
Three Main Components of a Neuron
Definition
Cell Body, Dendrite, Axon
Term
Trabeculae
Definition
Irregular latticework of thin plates of spongy bone tissue.
Term
Use the Reservoir Model For Controlled Variables to describe Ca2+ in the body.
Definition
Ca2+ is consumed, or osteoclast breaks down Calcium Phosphate - Pool is the blood, storage is the bone - Osteoblasts take in Calcium and Phosphate stimulated by Mechanical Stress, Sex steroids, and calcitonin in children
Term
What are the 4 steps and their breakdown (1,2,2,2) of Intramembranous Ossification?
Definition
Ossification centers appear in the fibrous connective tissue membrane.
-Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an ossification center.

Bone Matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the fibrous membrane and calcifies.
-Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is calcified within a few days.
-Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes

Woven bone and periosteum form.
-Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic blood vessels in a random manner. The result is a network (instead of lamellae) of trabeculae called woven bone.
-Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on teh external face of the woven bone and becomes the periosteum.

Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep to the periosteum. Red marrow appears.
-Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, and are later replaced with mature lamellar bone, forming compact bone plates.
-spongy bone, consisting of distinct trabeculae, persists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red marrow.
Term
What are the 5 steps of endochondral ossification?
Definition
Bone collar forms around hyaline cartilage model

Cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities

The periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone begins to form

The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms as ossification continues. Secondary ossificaiton centers appear in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5.

The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.
Term
What are the three functions of the nervous system?
Definition
Sensory Input

Integration (process and interpret)

Motor Output (activation of effector organs--muscles & glands)
Term
What are the three types of gated channels?
Definition
Chemical, Mechanical, Electrical
Term
What are the two parts of the Forebrain?
Definition
Cerebrum, Diencephalon
Term
What are the two types of bone growth?
Definition
Appositional-increase in thickness or width

Interstitial-increase in length
Term
What are the two types of ossification?
Definition
Intramembranous Ossification-Ossification begins on fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells; Makes the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and clavicle bones; mostly forms flatbones

Enchochondrial Ossification-Hyaline Cartilage is broken down as a model from the inside out as bone replaces it; Happens in all bones except clavicle
Term
What happens when cells don't have myelin sheaths?
Definition
Membrane is leaky to charge without myelin sheaths and action potential is not reproducible.
Term
What happens when your hand is in very cold water? (19)
Definition
Cold enough water causes Tissue Damage -> Cells release chemicals -> Chemicals bind to receptors on dendrites -> Opens chemically gated channels (Na+) -> Na+ diffuses inward -> depolarizes membrane (less -) -> Summation -> Membrane Potential reaches threshold -> opens voltage gated channels Na+ quick, K+ slow -> action potential -> action potential conducted to axon terminal (ap begins @ threshold, ends when the membrane is basic @ rest) -> ap at axon terminal -> opens voltage gated Ca+ channels -> Ca+ diffuses inward -> causes release of neurotransmitter from axon by exocytosis -> neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft -> opens chemically gated channel (Na+) -> Na+ diffuses inward -> depolarizes (excitatory postsynaptic potential)
Term
What is different about CNS endothelial cells regarding permeability?
Definition
The spaces between endothelial cells in the CNS have tight junctions to prevent permeability.
Term
What is the most common type of synapse?
Definition
Chemical
Term
What is the resting mV of most cells?
Definition
-70mV
Term
What number of sodiums and potassiums is pumped with each atp?
Definition
2K+ in for every 3Na+ out
Term
What the 3 layers of protection that the brain has?
Definition
CSF, Bones, and Meninges
Term
What two NT's suppress pain?
Definition
Endorphins and Enkephalins
Term
What two things do neurons do?
Definition
Decide and Communicate
Term
What were the two excitatory acids named in class?
Definition
Glutamic Acid

Aspartic Acid
Term
Where does CSF flow
Definition
The subarachnoid space
Term
Why does a positive wave (action potential) not travel backwards?
Definition
The refractory period
Term
Schwann Cell aka Neurolemmocytes
Definition
Surround and form myelin sheaths around the larger nerve fibers in the PNS.
Term
Neural Reflex Arc
Definition
Neural pathways that have five essential components: receptor, sensory neuron, CNS integration center, motor neuron, and effector.
Term
Practice drawing the different shapes of the nerve cells. (p.393)
Definition
-
Term
Periosteal Bud
Definition
Artery and Vein that enter into a newly forming bone to nourish.
Term
Function of thyroid hormones in bone growth

Function of sex hormones in bone growth
Definition
Modulate the activity of growth hormone.

Cause initial growth spurt followed later by a stop in interstitial growth via epiphyseal plate closure.
Term
Wolf's Law
Definition
A bone grows or remodels in response to the demands placed on it.
Term
The structure function relationship in bone
Definition
A bone's anatomy reflects the common stresses it encounters. A bone is hollow towards the center of a long bone because tension and compression neutralize each other.
Term
Describe long-bone growth
Definition
Cartilage cells form tall columns on the epiphyseal plate comprising the growth zone. The cartilage matrix chondrocytes under the epiphyseal plate die and calcify producing the calcification zone. This leaves stalactite looking calcified cartilage which eventually become part of the ossification zone.
Term
What are the four stages of fracture repair?
Definition
Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus forms, bony callus forms, bone remodeling occurs
Term
Glial Cells
Definition
aka neuroglia; provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons.
Term
Myelin Sheath
Definition
A whitish fatty (protein-lipoid) sheath around an axon.
Term
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) (aka inhibitory synapse)
Definition
A graded potential in a postsynaptic neuron that inhibit action potential generation; usually hyperpolarizing.
Term
Ohm's Law
Definition
Current (I) = Voltage (V) / Resistance (R)
Term
What is the function of hyperpolarization?
Definition
Reduce the possibility of producing a nerve impulse or action potential.
Term
The four steps to an action potential regarding Na & K channels.
Definition
Resting state- All gated Na and K channels are closed.

Depolarization- Na+ channels open

Repolarization- Na+ channels inactivated, and K+ channels open.

Hyperpolarization- Some K+ channels remain open, and Na+ channels reset.
Term
Graded Potential
Definition
Short lived localized charge in membrane potential that can either be depolarizations or hyperpolarizations. They cause current flows that decrease in magnitude with distance. They are called “graded” because their strength is dependent upon stimulus strength. (same as local?)

Two Types: EPSPs and IPSPs
Term
Axodendritic Synapses
vs
Axosomatic Synapses
Definition
Synapses between the axon endings of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons.

Synapses between axon endings of one neuron and cell bodies of another.
Term
What are the two general and five specific types of synapses?
Definition
General: Electrical and Chemical Synapses

Axodendtritic Synapse, Axoaxonic Synapse, Axosomatic synapse, Dendrodendritic synapse, Dendrosomatic synapse.
Term
What are the two parts of a chemical synapse?
Definition
Axon terminal (presynaptic)

Receptor Region (postsynaptic)
Term
The 6 steps of a chemical synapse signal
Definition
AP arrives at axon terminal

Voltage gated Ca channels open and Ca enters the axon terminal

Ca entry causes NT containing synaptic vesicles to release their contents by exocytosis

NT diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to specific receptors on postsynaptic membrane

Binding of neurotransmitter opens ion channels, resulting in graded potentials

Neurotransmitter effects are terminated by reuptake through transport proteins enzymatic degredation, or diffusion away form the synapse.
Term
What is the synaptic delay?
Definition
Anywhere from .3 to 5.0 ms
Term
What are the two types of summation?
Definition
Temporal- when one or more presynaptic neuron transmits impulses in rapid-fire order and bursts of neurotransmitter are released in quick succession.

Spatial- when the postsynaptic neuron is stimulated at the same time by a large number of terminals from the same or, more commonly, different neurons.
Term
Synaptic Potentiation
Definition
Repeated or continous use of a synapes (even for short periods) enhances the presynaptic neurons' ability to excite the postsynaptic neuron, producing larger than expected postsynaptic potentials.
Term
Presynaptic Inhibition
Definition
when the release of excitatory neurotransmitter by one neuron is inhibited by the activity of another neuron via an axoaxonic synapse.
Term
The four main biogenic NT amines
Definition
Norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin (5-HT), Histamine
Term
The three amino acid NT's
Definition
GABA, Glutamate, Glycine
Term
Neuromodulator
Definition
affects the strength of synaptic transmissions.
Term
Neuronal Pool
Definition
functional groups of neurons that integrate incoming information received from receptors or different neuronal pools and then forward the processed information to other destinations.
Term
The four different types of circuits
Definition
Diverging, Converging, Reverberating, parallel after-discharge
Term
Two Types of Mental Processing
Definition
Serial processing-the whole system works in a predictable all or nothing manner. One neuron stimulates the next and so on eventually causing a response.

Parallel processing- inputs are segregated into many pathways, and information delivered by each pathway is dealt with simultaneously by different parts of the neural circuitry. (neural associations)
Term
Growth Cone
Definition
The growing tip of an axon in making a neural connection.
Term
Opioid
Definition
a chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors in the CNS
Term
Two types of NT receptors
Definition
Channel-linked receptors- ligand gated ion channels that mediate direct transmitter action. aka ionotropic receptors. Change conformation w/ NT and allow ions to pass.

G protein-linked receptors- indirect, complex, slow, and often prolonged; aka metabotropic receptors. Work by controlling the production of second messengers.
Term
Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation
Definition
produced by the choroid plexus

flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Some flows through the central canal of the spinal cord

flows through the subarachnoid space

absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi
Term
CSF Function (3)
Definition
Keeps brain from crushing under its own weight, protects from impact, nourishes
Term
Blood Brain Barrier
Definition
Maintains constant internal environment for the brain so there are no chemical variations that would modify the threshold for neuronal firing. Cannot filter fat-soluble molecules.
Term
What are the four types of opioids?
Definition
Endorphins, Tachykinins, Somatostatin, Cholecystokinin
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