Term
| What does natural selection result in? |
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Definition
| Adaptations to past and present conditions |
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|
Term
| What are the three observations that natural selection is based on? |
|
Definition
| 1) Population increase geometrically through reproduction 2)All individuals are different 3) Populations remain constant |
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Term
| Why must there be variation in a trait? |
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Definition
| Because without variation, there is nothing for natural selection to select between |
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Term
| What are the two types of variation? |
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Definition
| Genetic and environmental |
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Term
|
Definition
| It can exist between populations, for example: migration, mutation and genetic recombination |
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Term
|
Definition
| It can only exist between populations |
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Term
|
Definition
| Similar selective pressures can lead to independent evolution of identical or similar traits in distantly related species |
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Term
| What has selective breeding done to dogs? |
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Definition
| It has resulted in a wide variety of dog breeds |
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Term
| What are the problems with selective breeding? |
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Definition
| Changing one trait can affect others, results in inbreeding and it decreases the gene pool |
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Term
| What dogs commonly get hip displasia? |
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Definition
| Larger dog breeds - Like the German Sheppard |
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Term
| What dog commonly gets deafness and epilepsy? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| In adaptation, what is the meaning of fitness? |
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Definition
| Its the measure of the ability to pass on genetic material - they're the individuals more successful at hunting and protection |
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Term
| Name types of structural adaptations |
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Definition
| Teeth, Fur/feather, spines/scales and camouflage |
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Term
| What does a behavior adaptation include? |
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Definition
| Activities that help an animal survive |
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Term
| What two ways can behavior adaptations occur? |
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Definition
| They can be learned or instinctive |
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Term
|
Definition
| The divergence of a single lineage to provide a variety of forms |
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Term
| An example of adaptive radiation |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| An example of a genetic mechanism |
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Definition
| Gregor Mendals experiment in 1959 showing genetic variation in individuals by looking at peas |
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Term
|
Definition
| Its when particular offspring inherit discrete particles (Genes) |
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Term
| What is instinctive behavior? |
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Definition
| It is a behavior an animal does not have to learn |
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Term
|
Definition
| The process of learning which leads to attachment - The knowledge is irreversible and is retained for life |
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Term
| What are the three different types of imprinting? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two periods an animal can learn a behavior called? |
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Definition
| Critical period and sensitive period |
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Term
| What is a critical period? |
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Definition
| A period that begins and end abruptly and if you miss it, you can not acquire the specific |
|
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Term
| What is a sensitive period? |
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Definition
| A long period with only gradual change and its easier to acquire a characteristic at this time period |
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Term
| Name an adaptive process (When the environment changes frequently) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Process by which an animal interacts with its environment and becomes changed by the experience so that the behaviors modified |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of learning? |
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Definition
| Non associative and associative |
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Term
|
Definition
| Repeated exposure to a single type of stimulus enables the organism to learn about the properties of the stimulus |
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|
Term
| What are the two forms of associative learning? |
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Definition
| Habituation and sensitisation |
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Term
|
Definition
| Defined as a progressive decrease in the strength of a response that may occur with repeated presentations of the stimulus |
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Term
|
Definition
| Rapid presentation of a stimulus with a short interval between the presentations |
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Term
|
Definition
| One stimulus presentation a day, see more long term affects |
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Term
|
Definition
| For sensitization the stimulus has to be unpleasant or aversive and it has short and long term affects |
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Term
|
Definition
| Association or relationship between two events |
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|
Term
| When does a learning process occur? |
|
Definition
| It occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus |
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Term
|
Definition
| Response to a stimulus and allows preperation for event |
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|
Term
| What is Operant conditioning? |
|
Definition
| A change in response's probability |
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Term
| Factors affecting learning |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A technique of reinforcement used to teach new behaviors |
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Term
|
Definition
| When an animal has the ability to learn from another - usually social animals |
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|
Term
| What is social learning influenced by? |
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Definition
| An observation or interaction with another animal |
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|
Term
| Give an example of a study in social learning |
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Definition
| Bandura in 1977 showed social learning in humans - The bobo doll experiment |
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Term
| What are the two main problems with studying social learning |
|
Definition
| Categories not as clear as asocial learning and its studied in captive animals but hard to do in wild animals |
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|
Term
| Social learning includes enhancement, what are the two types of enhancement? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is local enhancement? |
|
Definition
| Its when an Individual (A) is located in a particular area and another Individual (B) attention is drawn to the same area |
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|
Term
| What is stimulus enhancement? |
|
Definition
| Its when an Individual (A) interacts with an object and the attention of individual (B) is drawn to the object because of this |
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Term
| What is social facilitation? |
|
Definition
| Presence of an active non-feeding companion facilitated feeding behavior in chicks |
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|
Term
| What type of animals is social facilitation seen in? |
|
Definition
| Its only seen in group animals |
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Term
|
Definition
| When animal is shown an experience and learns a behavior from it |
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|
Term
| What is an example of imitation |
|
Definition
| Blue tit experiment - When Sherry and Galef in 1984 showed that experience with open bottles produced the behavior |
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|
Term
| What is teaching in animals? |
|
Definition
| When the animal is taught a behavior, rather than just watching and observing the behavior |
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Term
|
Definition
| A behavior which benefits others at some cost to the donor |
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|
Term
| What does altruism increase and decrease in an animal? |
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Definition
| It Decreases direct fitness of an individual and it increases inclusive fitness if behaving altruistically to a close relative |
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|
Term
| In what four circumstances will natural selection favor altruistic behavior? |
|
Definition
| Mutualism, manipulation, kin selection and reciprocity |
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|
Term
| What is manipulation in altruism? |
|
Definition
| When an animal is being tricked into being alturistic |
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|
Term
| What is reciprocal altruism? |
|
Definition
| When an animals helpful act is repaid by the recipient at a later date |
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|
Term
| What is cooperative breeding? |
|
Definition
| When an Individual forgoes the chance to breed for part or all of its life in order to help others breed |
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|
Term
| Where can you find plural breeders? (What kind of habitat) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Interaction/association between individuals of the same species |
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|
Term
| What does sociality affect in evolution? |
|
Definition
| It affects behavior, morphological and life history trait changes |
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|
Term
| What are the benefits of living in a group? |
|
Definition
| For warmth, impacts the dilution and the confusion effect and it aids movement in the air (birds) |
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|
Term
| What are the two main costs in living in a group? |
|
Definition
| Parasitism and Competition |
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|
Term
| What is the dilution effect? |
|
Definition
| It reduces probability of being attacked by predator and companions serve as targets instead |
|
|
Term
| What is the confusion effect? |
|
Definition
| Reduces efficiency of attacks by predators, greater risk of predator being hurt and makes it hard to track prey |
|
|
Term
| What are the benefits of birds flying together? |
|
Definition
| They save energy when flying together, especially in the 'V' formation |
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|
Term
| How can animals in social groups thrive? |
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Definition
| By creating complex sets of relationships and cooperating together |
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|
Term
| What is the role of predators? |
|
Definition
| They increase diversity and maintain the correct amount of animals in a population - prevents areas from getting over populated |
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|
Term
| What is a keystone species? |
|
Definition
| A species that has a key role in the maintenance of ecosystem structure |
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|
Term
| Give an example of a keystone species |
|
Definition
| Sea otters maintain kelp Forrest structure by preying on sea urchin which graze on the kelp and this helps maintain a diverse ecosystem |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| It is the consuming of one organism by another, usually of a similar or larger size |
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|
Term
| The act of a predator acquiring food can be divided into four sections |
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Definition
| Detection, attack, capture and consumption |
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|
Term
| Two main forms of predator avoidance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do animals avoid attack? |
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Definition
| They withdraw to cover, they use flight behavior and they use diversion and they use an alarm signal |
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|
Term
| What is alarm signalling? |
|
Definition
| When predators approach given off; maybe visual, auditory, chemical or even mechanical and the effect is to either trigger, escape or gain support to confront |
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Term
|
Definition
| When a Prey tries to pose a threat to the predator, inflating the body, raising hair up, Weaponry (teeth, horns antlers, spines etc) and Chemical deterrent i.e. skunks |
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|
Term
| How animals avoid capture? |
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Definition
| They avoid capture through diversion and 'playing' dead |
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Term
|
Definition
| The occupation and defense of a particular areas |
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|
Term
| What can territories contain? |
|
Definition
| Single individuals, families and groups of individuals |
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|
Term
| What do the species in neighboring territories do? |
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Definition
| They establish boundaries, they renegotiate with new neighbors and this leads to the dear enemy effect |
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|
Term
| What is dear enemy effect? |
|
Definition
| Not challenging its neighbor, trusting neighbor and challenging intruders in either territory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Its a territory only shown by a minority of species |
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|
Term
| How should animals distribute themselves in their habitat? |
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Definition
| They should distribute themselves in relation to other individuals, resources and the environment |
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|
Term
| What is consepcific attraction? |
|
Definition
| Its the opposite of ideal pre-emptive distribution that can be true |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Relates to all activities in the search and exploitation of resources |
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|
Term
| What does the animal consider when foraging? |
|
Definition
| Patch choice, travelling time to the patch, prey choice and handling time |
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|
Term
| How does an animal decide where to hunt? |
|
Definition
| Through ideal free distribution and optimal foraging theory |
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|
Term
| How does an animal decide what to eat? |
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Definition
| Between the narrow range of species and the large range of species |
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|
Term
| What is optimal foraging theory? |
|
Definition
| OPT looks at the exploitation of resource patchiness, if the areas food clumped, whats the highest energetic return over time and that the patch quality decreases over time |
|
|
Term
| What is the optimal patch time? |
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Definition
| The optimal patch time is when the gradient (energy gain) is at a tangent - after this, you don't gain sufficient energy so you move onto the next patch |
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|
Term
| Assumptions with optimal foraging theory |
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Definition
| Foragers rank food types in terms of profitability and foragers should always include the most profitable prey |
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|
Term
| What is central place foraging? |
|
Definition
| Taking food back to a central place to consume, for example: a nest |
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|
Term
| What factors affect foraging? |
|
Definition
| An animals satiation level will effect foraging habits, the need for specific nutrients and social learning |
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|
Term
| What is sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| Process whereby some individuals gain an advantage over others of their kind in relation to reproduction |
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|
Term
| What is the role of the male in sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| To produce the sperm and to produce it in large numbers |
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|
Term
| What is the role of the female in sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| To produce eggs but not a large number of them |
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|
Term
| What are the two main components to sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| Intrasexual and intersexual selection |
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|
Term
| What are the four theories as to how females can benefit from mate choice? |
|
Definition
| Healthy mate theory, good gene theory, runaway theory and handicap principle |
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|
Term
| What is healthy mate theory? |
|
Definition
| Its that females prefer healthy males and healthy is indicated by elaborate courtship displays and ornaments |
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|
Term
| What is good gene theory? |
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Definition
| Its that females look for genes which would increase the survival of offspring and they get this information through courtship displays and ornaments provided |
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|
Term
| What is runaway selection? |
|
Definition
| Its certain characteristic attracts females, females have offspring with this characteristic and the offspring are more successful with mating |
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|
Term
| What is the handicap principle? |
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Definition
| Its the principle that females prefer a male with a trait that reduces his chances of survival - alternative to runaway selection |
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|
Term
| Males and females are under different sexual selection pressures - What are these pressures? |
|
Definition
| For males mate with as many females as possible and for females high quality males |
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Term
|
Definition
| Sperm from different males compete with one another over access to fertilize the female’s egg |
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|
Term
| What are the two types of sperm competition? |
|
Definition
External fertilization (synchronous spawning and asynchronous)
And internal fertilization (Variety of mechanisms by both females and males) |
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|
Term
| Females have storage organs for sperm, why do they do this? |
|
Definition
| They do this as it increases genetic diversity in offspring |
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Term
| In some animals, 'plugs' seal the females genital, what are the two methods of the plug? |
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Definition
| It stops males from inserting penis and chemicals to dissuade mating |
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Term
| Give an example of an animal with a 'plug' and say how its effective |
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Definition
| Bumblee plug contains linoleic acid this reduces the female desire to remate And Guinea pigs males produce sperm plug (coagulated ejaculate in the vaginae) stops other males mating with the female |
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|
Term
| In terms of evolutionary adaptations, what does the sperm competition achieve? |
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Definition
| It has a maximum genetic diversity and it assures paternity |
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|
Term
| What are the four basic mating systems? |
|
Definition
| Monogamy, polyandry, polygyny and polygynandry |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Its where one male breeds with multiple females |
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|
Term
| What are the different forms of polygyny? |
|
Definition
| Resource defence polygyny, female defence polygny and lek based polygny |
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|
Term
| What is female-defense polygyny? |
|
Definition
| Its when they compete to defend groups of females rather than resources |
|
|
Term
| What is resource defense polygyny? |
|
Definition
| Resource monopolization by males and males compete to control these resources |
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|
Term
| What is Lek-based polygny? |
|
Definition
| Its when resources and/or or females are not defended |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Its when females can take several mates in one season and can defend territories that attract mates or defend mates |
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|
Term
| What are the two types of polyandry? |
|
Definition
| Classical and Cooperative |
|
|
Term
| What is classical polyandry? |
|
Definition
| Its when each male looks after own offspring |
|
|
Term
| What is cooperative polyandry? |
|
Definition
| Its when the community looks after the young together |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Its known as sexual promiscuity
and has unrestricted mating system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When one male and one female breed together - At a breeding season or for life |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of mating guarding hypothesis? |
|
Definition
| Adaptive system and common system |
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|
Term
| What is an adaptive system? |
|
Definition
| A female left by one male would acquire another partner and that individuals sperm would fertilise her egg |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Female stays receptive after mating and they are widely scattered and difficult to locate |
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|
Term
| What is female enforced monogamy? |
|
Definition
| Female blocks the males attempt at polygny |
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|
Term
| What are the five basic patterns of parental care? |
|
Definition
| BiParental, Uniparental, No care, Siblings and others |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Its when the mortality of female (usually birds) during the breeding season is high |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Its the long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis |
|
|
Term
| When does migration occur? |
|
Definition
| It occurs when the potential reproductive success achieved can be greater else where |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of migration? |
|
Definition
| Accidental and deliberate |
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|
Term
| What can deliberate migration be split into? |
|
Definition
| Calculated and non calculated |
|
|
Term
| What is calculated deliberate migration? |
|
Definition
| Its when the animal is able to assess the relative quality of the place where it is going |
|
|
Term
| What is non calculated deliberate migration? |
|
Definition
| Its not able to assess the quality of where it is going |
|
|
Term
| How does an animal know where to migrate to? |
|
Definition
| Through landscape topography, magnetic field, odour, celestial (sun and stars) and infrasound |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Its usually goal oriented and its unlike instinctive behavior, motivation depends on emotional state |
|
|
Term
| What is motivational state based on and consists of? |
|
Definition
| Traditionally based upon a single feedback principle, appetitive behaviour and consummatory behaviour/activity |
|
|
Term
| What are the two main theories relating to motivation? |
|
Definition
| Lorenz’s psychohydraulic model and homeostatic/control theory models |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Its the urge to perform particular activities |
|
|
Term
| Why is researching motivation useful? |
|
Definition
| It helps access the welfare of the animal |
|
|
Term
| What is animal personality? |
|
Definition
| Its the consistent behavioural differences among individuals can amount to personalities |
|
|
Term
| What have studies in animal personality shown? |
|
Definition
| Studies have shown that sociality could be a strong factor in the evolution of personality difference and that different personalities help to avoid costly conflict |
|
|
Term
| Why is it important to understand personality traits? |
|
Definition
| Because it has important implications for conservation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| It when play is centered on the use of inanimate objects |
|
|
Term
| Object play - What life stage of animal is it best understood in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the best studied type of play? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does social play incorporate? |
|
Definition
| It incorporates play with other individuals and it has a number of potential benefits |
|
|
Term
| What are the three functions of social play? |
|
Definition
| Physical skills benefiting later life (hunting, foraging), formation of social bonds, aid the development of cognitive skills |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the categories of aggression? |
|
Definition
| Territorial defense, predatory aggression, inter-male aggression,fear induced aggression,irritable aggression, maternal aggression, instrumental aggression |
|
|
Term
| When does aggression occur? |
|
Definition
| When valuable resources are available animals will fight or threaten to fight |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Its a physiological response |
|
|
Term
| Give an example of aggression in a social group |
|
Definition
| Wasps - When foreign individuals enter a nest guards often respond with vigorous & deadly defensive behavior |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of hormones in aggression? |
|
Definition
| Castration leads to a decrease in aggression - decrease in testosterone level and there is the same pattern seen in females |
|
|
Term
| What are the models used to look at aggression? |
|
Definition
| A hawk/Dove, a war of Attrition model and a sequential Assessment models |
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