The Chemical (Molecular) Level

comprised of atoms combining together into three dimentional structures

The Cellular Level

the component necessary for life; comprised of a membrane and organelles, which reside inside of the cell

The Tissue Level

a group of cells working together to carry out a particular function 

The Organ Level

two or more tissue types working together towards common functions

The Organ System Level

a group of organs working together to carry out a common function 

The Organism Level

the highest level of organization; all organ systems working together

Levels of Organization

The higher levels of organization are reliant upon the lower levels- that is to say, the system is reliant upon all involved organs, organs upon all involved tisses, and so on...

Major Organs of the Skeletal System

-bones

-cartilage

-ligaments

-bone marrow

Functions of the Skeletal System

-support and protection of other tissues

-stores calcium and other minerals

-forms blood cells

Major Organs of the Nervous System

-brain

-spinal cord

-peripheral nerves

-sense organs

Functions of the Nervous System

-directs immediate responses to stimuli

-coordinates and moderates activites of other organ systems

-provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions

Major Organs of the Integumentary System

-skin

-hair

-sweat glands

-nails

Functions of the Integumentary System

-protects againt enviormental hazards

-helps regulate body tempature

-provides sensory information 

Major Organs of the Muscular System 

-skeletal muscle

-tendons

Functions of the Muscular System

-provides the means for movement

-provides protection and support of other tissues

-generates heat to maintain body tempature

Major Organs of the Endocrine System

-pituitary gland

-pancreas

-gonads

-thyroid gland

-adrenal glands

-endocrine tissue

Functions of the Endocrine System

-directs long-term changes in the activites of other organ systems

-adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body

-controls many structural and functional changes during development

Major Organs of the Cardiovascular System

-heart

-blood

-blood vessels

Functions of the Cardiovascular System

-distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide

-distributes heat and assists in control of body tempature

Major Organs of the Respiratory System

-nasal cavities 

-sinuses

-larynx

-trachea

-bronchi

-lungs

-alveoli

Functions of the Respiratory System

-delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs)

-provides oxygen to bloodstream

-produces sounds for communication 

Major Organs of the Male Reproductive System

-testes

-epididymus

-ductus deferentia

-seminal vesicles

-prostate gland

-penis

-scrotum

Functions of the Male Reproductive System

-produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending fluid, and hormones

-sexual intercourse

Major Organs of the Lymphatic System

-spleen

-thymus

-lymphatic vessels

-lymph nodes

-tonsils

Functions of the Lymphatic System

-defends against infection and disease

-returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream 

Major Organs of the Urinary System

-kidneys

-ureters

-urinary bladder

-urethra

Functions of the Urinary System

-excretes waste products from the blood

-controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced

-stores urine prior to voluntary elimination 

-regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

Major Organs of the Female Reproductive System

-ovaries

-uterine tubes

-uterus

-vagina

-labia

-clitoris

-mammary glands

Functions of the Female Reproductive System

-produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones

-supports developing embryo

-provides milk to nourish newborn infant 

-sexual intercourse

Homeostasis

exsistence of a stable environment

Homeostasis Regulation

the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis; carried out by two general mechanisms

Autoregulation

a cell, tissue, organ, or organ system adjusts activities automatically due to an environmental change 

Extrinsic Regulation

initiated by the nervous system or the endocrine system

Two methods that help regulate homeostasis

-negative feedback

-positive feedback

Negative Feedback

the way of counteracting an effect

Positive Feedback

an initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the original change

Anatomical Position

standard anatomical reference which includes hands at the side with palms forward, and feet together

Superior

above, at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head)

Inferior

below; at a lower level

Anterior

the front surface

Posterior

the back surface

Ventral

the belly side (equivalent to anterior when referring to the human body)

Dorsal

the back surface

Medial

towards the body's longitudinal axis; toward the midsagittal plane

Lateral

away from the body's longitudinal axis; away from the midsagittal plane

Deep

farther from the body surface

Superficial

at, near, or relatively close to the body surface

Proximal

toward an attached base

Distal

away from an attached base

Cephalic

the head

Caudal

the tail (coccyx in humans)

Plane

an axis along the body 

Section 

a single view, or slice, views along a plane

3 planes: transverse (horizontal), frontal (coronal), sagittal planes

Frontal Plane

seperates the anterior and posterior portions of the body; coronal usually refers to sections passing through the skull

Sagittal Plane

seperates right and left portions of the body, you examine a sagittal section, but you section sagittaly

Midsattigal Plane

the plane passes through the midline, dividing the body into right and left sides

Levels of Organization

atoms > molecules > proteins > cell > tissues > organ > system> organism

Diffusion

the movement of a substance from an area oh higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

The rate of diffusion is dependent upon ...

1. Distance

2. Molecule Size

3. Concentration Gradient

4. Tempature

5. Electrical Forces

Facilitated Diffusion 

a substance diffuses through a membrane via a trans membrane protein (channel or carrier)

Primary Active Transport 

additional energy is used at the membrane to move a substance against its concentration gradient

Secondary Active Transport

uses primary active transport to indirectly move a substance against its concentration gradient

Simple Diffusion

a substance diffuses through the lipid portion of the membrane

3 factors are needed for this: the molecule must be small, uncharged, and hydrophobic

Osmosis

the movement of water across a membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration 

Filtration Pressure

osmosis pressure + hydrostatic pressure =

Endocytosis

extracellular substances brought into a cell via a vesicle 

Exocytosis

vesicular fusion of a vesicle to a target membrane 

Transverse Plane

(perpendicular to long axis)

it seperates superior and inferior portions of the body; a cut in this plane is called a cross section

Longitudinal Plane

(parasagittal)

cut parallel to the midsagittal plane, seperates the body into right and left portions of unequal size