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Anatomy & Physiology II
Test 2: Blood, Cardiovascular and Lymphatic System
245
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
02/04/2013

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Cards

Term
blood is what type of suspension?
Definition
viscous
Term
blood pH
Definition
7.35-7.45
Term
what is the volume of blood in the human body?
Definition
5L; approximately 8% of one's body weight
Term
plasma solutes (5)
Definition

100+

1. electrolytes

2. gases

3. hormones

4. proteins 

5. metabolic wastes


Term
blood is what kind of tissue?
Definition
liquid tissue composed mostly of water
Term
what are functions of the blood (3)?
Definition

distribution 

regulation

protection

Term
describe the distribution function of the blood (4)
Definition

1. transports oxygen from lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract to cells

2. transports metabolic products/wastes from cells to elimination sites (lungs elim. carbon dioxide/kidneys elim. nitrogenous wastes in urine)

3. transports hormones from the endocrine organs to their target organs

4. transports water throughout the body

Term
describe the regulation function of blood (3)
Definition

1. regulates body temperature

2. regulates pH balance to avoid jeopardizing normal cell activity

3. maintains fluid volume in the circulatory system

Term

describe the protection function of the blood


Definition
the blood aids in fluid/blood loss and prevention of such as well as prevention of infections
Term
what is blood composed of?
Definition
55% plasma and 45% formed elements (cellular material)
Term
formed elements
Definition
living blood cells
Term
plasma
Definition
straw colored, sticky, non-living fluid matrix in which the formed elements are suspended composed mostly of water
Term
definition of blood
Definition
sticky, opaque, specialized connective tissue in which formed elements are suspended in plasma with a characteristic metallic taste
Term
erythrocytes
Definition
red blood cells that transport oxygen in the capillaries of the lungs and releases it to tissue cells across other capillaries throughout the body
Term
leukocytes
Definition
aka "chemical sharpshooters" or white blood cells that act in various ways to protect the body such as phagocytosis anitbody production and waste clean up
Term
platelets 
Definition
cell fragments that help stop bleeding
Term
hematocrit
Definition
total volume of a blood sample
Term
albumin
Definition
accounts for 60% of plasma that acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules throught the circulation, is an important blood buffer, and is the major blood protein contributing to the plasma osmotic pressure
Term
plasma osmotic pressure 
Definition
pressure that helps to keep water in the blood stream
Term
acidosis
Definition
when the blood becomes too acidic in reaction to blood protein production by the liver
Term
formed elements of the blood consist of (3)?
Definition

1. erythrocytes (RBCs)

2. leukocytes (WBCs)

3. platelets (PLTs)


Term
which of the formed elements is a complete cell?
Definition
leukocytes (WBCs)
Term
hemoglobin physical characteristic
Definition
four polypeptide chains consisting of 2 alpha and beta chains each bound to a heme group
Term
erythrocyte physical characteristics (4)
Definition

1. biconcave discs (doughnuts)

2. anucleate (no nucleus)

3. essentially no organelles (left over cell)

4. 7.5 microns in diameter


Term
erythrocytes are filled with what?
Definition
hemoglobin
Term
hemoglobin
Definition
globular protein (globin) that makes red blood cells red (heme pigment), binds easily and reversibly with oxygen and most oxygen carried in blood is bound to it
Term
erythrocyte plasma membrane protein spectrin and other protein function
Definition
framework that gives them their flexibility and shape
Term
Hb ration to oxygen
Definition
250 million Hb in one RBC binds to 1 billion oxygen cells
Term
oxyhemoglobin
Definition
when oxygen binds to iron (the hemoglobin)
Term
deoxyhemoglobin
Definition
when oxygen detaches itself from the hemoglobin
Term
carbominohemoglobin
Definition
when carbon dioxide binds with globin's amino acids (polypeptide) rather than to the heme group for transport to the lungs 
Term
carbominoglobin accounts for what percentage of carbon dioxide in the blood?
Definition
20%
Term
hematopoiesis
Definition
blood cell formation occuring in red bone marrow
Term
red bone marrow
Definition
soft network of reticular connective tissue containing immature blood cells, macrophages, fat cells, and retifular cells bordering on blood sinusoids 
Term
blood sinusoids
Definition
wide blood capillaries in red bone marrow
Term
reticular cells
Definition
secrete the connective tissue fibers
Term
hematopoietic stem cells
Definition
aka hemocytoblasts residing in bone marrow in which all formed elements arise from
Term
hypoxia 
Definition
decreased red blood cell count and oxygen availability as well as increased tissue demand for oxygen
Term
erythropoietin
Definition
stimulates erythrocyte production and maturation as it is released by the kidneys in response to hypoxia 
Term
Iron (Fe)
Definition
obtained in the diet in small daily doses that is released into the bloodstream via the intestines and erythrocytes bind to them as needed to form hemoglobin
Term
what percentage of Fe is stored in Hb?
Definition
65%
Term
ferratin and hemosiderin
Definition
cells that store Fe as protein-complexes as iron is toxic if free flowing
Term
transferrin
Definition
transport protein that carries Fe
Term
other dietary requirements in relation to erythropoietin and Fe
Definition
B12 and folate (DNA synthesis), proteins, lipids and carbs
Term
anemia
Definition
blood's oxygen-carrying level is too low to support metabolism
Term
signs of anemia (4)
Definition

1. fatigued

2. pale

3. short of breath

4. chilled



Term
anemia can be divided into wht 3 group
Definition

blood loss

not enough RBC produced

too many RBC produced

Term
hemorrhagic anemia 
Definition
blood loss group causing acute (rapid blood loss; stab wound) or chronic (slight, persistent blood loss; ulcer etc.) cases
Term
iron-deficiency anemia
Definition
not enough blood cells produced group as there is an inadequate Fe intake, impaired Fe absorption and increased Fe loss secondary to hemorrhagic anemia
Term
microcytes 
Definition
erythrocyte produced cells that are small and pale bc they cannot synthesize their normal complement of hemoglobin
Term
pernicious anemia 
Definition
autoimmune disease affecting the elderly where their cells destroy the own stomach mucosea in forms of large, pale RBCs caused by a deficiency of B12 made in the stomach as well as a lack of intrinsic factor allowing B12 absorption in the intestines and can be treated by taking B12 supplements
Term
hemolytic anemia
Definition
due to decreased RBCs as erythrocytes rupture, or lyse, prematurely caused by abnormal Hb, infection and cell trauma
Term
aplastic anemia
Definition
decreased RBCs due to destruction or inhibition of red marrow by certain drugs and chemicals, ionizing radiation, or viruses
Term
thalassameias
Definition
hereditary, genetic defect in Mediterranean ancestry where there is an absent or faulty globin chain in Hb causing the RBCs to be thin, delicate and deficient in Hb resulting in a low RBC count
Term
sickle cell anemia
Definition
genetic coding defect for abnormal Hb call HbS (single amino acid sub in beta chain) in African ancestry that causes RBCs to become sickle shaped in low oxygen situations and the RBC debris clogs the capillaries causing sludging
Term
polycythemia
Definition
caused by a high erythrocyte count that increases blood viscosity
Term
polycythemia vera
Definition
a bone marrow cancer that causes diziness and impairs circulation 
Term
secondary polycythemia
Definition
due to erythropoesis that results when there is less oxygen available or EPO production increases that is prevalent in those living at high altitudes
Term
destruction of RBCs (4)
Definition

1. they do not (re)produce

2. between 100-120 days they become fragile

3. dying RBCs are engulfed by macrophages in the spleen

4. heme and globin are separated and the iron is salvaged for reuse

Term
blood doping
Definition
artificially induced polycythemia in which a person's blood is drawn and stored and the body quickly replaces the erythrocytes. A few days before it is needed (ie. athletic event), a person will inject the stored blood causing temporary polycythemia
Term

breakdown process of heme and globin after they are separated (4)

 

Definition

1. heme is degraded to bilirubin (yellow)

2. bilirubin is secreted by the liver into the intestines as bile and degraded to urobilinogen (green)

3. urobilinogen is then degraded to stercobilin (brown)(feces)

4. globin is metabolized into amino acids

Term
diapedesis
Definition
ability of the WBC to move outside of the bloodstream (capillary blood vessels) and function
Term
what is the relationship between WBCs and the circulatory system?
Definition
the circulatory system is used to get WBC to the repair site
Term
what prompts diapedesis?
Definition
chemical signals call cell adhesion molecules displayed by endothelial cells forming the capillary walls at sites of inflammation
Term
amoeboid motion
Definition
once outside of the bloodstream, leukocytes form flowing cytoplasmic extensions that move them through the tissue spaces to the target area
Term
positive chemotaxis
Definition
when leukocytes follow the chemical trail of molecules released by damaged cells or other leukocytes and they pinpoint areas of tissue damage and infection and gather there in large numbers to destroy foreign substances and dead cells
Term
leukocyte classification
Definition
based upon appearance after staining (Wright's stain) that classifies them as granulocytes or agranulocytes
Term
granulocytes
Definition
large, spherical, short-lived, leukocytes/phagocytic cells with a lobed nucleus that are comprised of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils that have visible granules after staining (acidic, basic or both) 
Term
neutrophil
Definition
most abundant type of white blood cell that increase during acute bacterial infections
Term
defensins
Definition
smaller granules of the neutrophils that contain a potent "brew" of antimicrobial proteins
Term
polymorphonuclear leukocytes 
Definition
means many shpes of the nucleus as the neutrophil can consist of 3-6 lobes 
Term
respiratory burst
Definition
process that promotes bacteria killing as cells metabolize oxygen to produce potent germ killing oxidizing substances such as bleach and hydrogen peroxide
Term
eosinophil
Definition
their granules take up and acid stain called eosin that make up 2-4% of WBC that lead the counter attack against parasitic worms that are too large to by phagocytized and have relations to allergies and asthma
Term
basophil
Definition
rarest WBC that reacts to bases
Term
histamine
Definition
inflammatory chemical that acts as a vasodilator (makes blood vessels dialate) and attracts other white blood cells to the inflamed site
Term
mast cells
Definition
similar to basophils, found in connective tissues that bind to immunoglobulin E that causes the cells to release histamine
Term
agranulocytes 
Definition
WBCs that lack visible cytoplasmic granules (mononuclear) that are comprised of lymphocytes (spherial nuclei) and monocytes (kidney-shaped nuclei)
Term
leukopoiesis 
Definition
production of WBCs that are stimulated by the glycoproteins/cytokins, interleukins and colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
Term
what are the most important sources of cytokins?
Definition
macrophages and T cells
Term
t cells
Definition
t lymphocytes that function in the immune response by acting directly against virus-infected cells and tumor cells
Term
macrophages 
Definition
monocytes that leave the bloodstream and enter the tissues with prodigious appetites for viruses, certain intracellular bacterial parasites and chronic infections (Tb)
Term
all WBCs originate from what?
Definition
hemocytoblasts aka hematopoetic stem cells
Term
hemocytoblasts differentiate into what?
Definition
myeloid and and lymphoid stem cells
Term
stem cells mature and differentiate into what?
Definition
specific WBC lines
Term
leukopenia
Definition
abnormally low WBC count commonly induced by drugs, particularly glucocoticoids and anitcancer agents
Term
leukocytosis
Definition
abnormally high WBC count
Term
leukemia 
Definition
group of cancerous conditions involving overpopulation of clone WBCs 
Term
leukemias are named according to what?
Definition
the abnormal WBCs such as myeloid (myeloblast descent) and lymphotic (lymphocytes) 
Term
what are the categories of leukemia (2)?
Definition

1. acute which acts rapidly and primarily in children deriving from stem cells

2. chronic which slowly advances primarily in adults deriving from proliferation of later cell stages

Term
leukemia symptoms
Definition
it fills the red bone marrow and immature, nonfunctional WBCs flood the bloodstream, crowding out the other cell lines  resulting in anemia, bleeding problems, fever, weight loss, and bone pain that leads to death by hemorrhaging and overwhelming infections
Term
leukemia treatments
Definition
radiation, anti-leukemic drugs and bone marrow transplants
Term
platelet charateristics
Definition
not true cells but made up of megakaryocytes cell fragments that show up as small,  purple spots on Wright's stain
Term
platelet functions
Definition
granules contain chemicals that are essential for the clotting process that occurs in plasma when blood vessels or their lining is ruptured by forming temporary plugs/seal  
Term
skeletal muscle cells
Definition
long, cylindrical, multinucleate, heavily banded and relativley independent
Term
thrombopioietin
Definition
regulates the formation of platelets 
Term
sinusoid
Definition
specialized type of capillary in red marrow
Term
homostasis
Definition
process to stop bleeding
Term
what are the 3 stages of hemostasis
Definition

vascular spasm

platelet plug formation

coagulation (blood clotting)

Term
vascular spasm 
Definition
damaged blood vessels respond to injury by constricting (vasoconstricting) triggered by direct injury to smooth muscle, chemicals released by endothelial cells and platelets and reflexes initiated by local pain receptors
Term
platelet plug formation
Definition
when PLTs aggregate (stick together), forming a plug that temporarily seals the break in the vessel wall and help orchestrate subsequent events that form a blood clot
Term
prostacyclin (PGI2)
Definition
endothelial cell prostaglandin taht prevent PLT aggregation in undamaged tissue and restrict it to the site of injury
Term
PLT adhesion in endothelium injuries
Definition
PLTs adhere to exposed collagen fibers bounded by the large plasma protein von Willebrand factor and activate (degranulate) secreting chemical messengers 
Term
platelet chemicals
Definition

adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

serotonin

thromboxane A2

Term
adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Definition
attracts more PLTs for aggregation
Term
serotonin
Definition
enhances vasospasm
Term
thromboxane A2
Definition
enhances serotonin in ADP (positive feedback)
Term
coagulation (blood clotting)
Definition
reinforces PLT plug with fibrin threads that act as a "molecular glue" for aggregated PLTs
Term
procoagulants (clotting factors)
Definition
13 that react to transform blood from a liquid to a gel
Term
phase 1 of coagulation ends in the formation of what?
Definition
prothrombin activator
Term
intrinsic pathway
Definition
factors need for clotting are present within the blood and are triggered by negatively charged surfaces (PLTs, collagen or glass) and slowly reacts becuse it has many intermediate steps
Term
extrinsic pathway
Definition
the tissue factor required is outside of the blood that is triggered by exposing blood to a factor found in tissues under the damaged endothelium and acts quickly because it bypasses several steps of the intrinsic pathway
Term
phase 2 of coagulation
Definition
prothrombin activator catalyzes the conversion of plasma protein prothrombin to the active enzyme thrombin
Term
what is the end result of phase 3 coagulation?
Definition
fibrin mesh that traps blood cells and effectively seals the hole until the blood vessel can be permanently repaired 
Term
what happens during phase 3 coagulation?
Definition
thrombin catalyzes the transformation of the soluble clotting factor fibrinogen into fibrin and the fibrin joins together to form a mesh
Term
factor XIII (fibrin stabilizing factor)
Definition
cross linking enzyme that binds the fibrin strands tightly together helping to form the mesh, strenthening and stabilizing it
Term
anticoagulants
Definition
factors that inhibit clotting 
Term
automacity/autorythmicity
Definition
ability of some cardiac muscles to self excite and excite the rest of the heart and spontaneously depolarize
Term
clot retraction
Definition
platelet induced process in which their proteins actin and myosine contract, compacting the clot
Term
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
Definition
released by platelets that stimulates smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to divide and rebuild the vessel wall
Term
what are the two homeostatic mechanisms that prevent clots from becoming large?
Definition

swift removal of clotting factors

inhibition of activated clotting factors

Term
fibrinolysis
Definition
removed unneeded clots when healing has occurred
Term
plasminogen
Definition
activated to form plasmin
Term
plasmin
Definition
critical, natural, fribrin-digesting enzyme, clot buster 
Term
tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)(XII)
Definition
released by the endothelial cells that works with thrombin to activates plasminogen
Term

3 factors of clot containment

 

 

Definition

1. clot formation mucst be limited to the area of injury

2. diluting: clottin factors must be present in high enough concentration to react

3. anitthrombin III and protein C inactivates thrombin that is not in associatin with fibrin


Term
heparin
Definition
natural anticoagulant contained in boasophil and mat cell granules and on the surface of endothelial cells 
Term
thromboembolytic conditions (3)
Definition

thrombus

embolism

embolus

Term
thrombus 
Definition
clot that develops and presists in unbroken blood vessel
Term
embolus
Definition
when a thrombus breaks free into circulation
Term
embolism
Definition
an embolus wedged in a vesel 
Term
disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Definition
consumes clotting factors and residual bood cannot clot which resulting in sever hemorrhaging if not treated
Term
thrombocytopenia
Definition
bleeding disorder in which there is a deficiency of platelets causing spontaneous bleeding and petechiae (small bruises) caused by viral infections, medications, bone marrow destructin, or a vitamin K deficiency
Term
skeletal muscle fiber contraction
Definition
stimulated by nerve endings
Term
liver dysfunction
Definition
failure of the liver to synthesize clotting factors causing hepatitis or cirrhosis etc.
Term
hemophelia 
Definition
refers to several heredity bleeding disorders that result from a deficiency of factor VIII (anti-hemophiliac factor)
Term
hemophilia A
Definition
classifc form that results from a factor VIII deficiency
Term
hemophilia B
Definition
occurs from a lack of factor IX deficiency that are sex linked recessive and occur in males
Term
hemophilia C
Definition
occurs from a deficiency in factor XI deficiency which is a milder form that can affect both sexes
Term
right side of the heart
Definition
receives oxygen poor blood from body tissues and then pumps this blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen and dispel carbon dioxide
Term
pulmonary circuit
Definition
blood vessels that carry blood to and from the lungs 
Term
left side of the heart
Definition
recieves oxygenated blood returning from the lungs and pumps this blood throughout the body to supply oxygen and nutrients to body tissues
Term
systemic circuit
Definition
blood vessels that carry blood to and from all body tisues form
Term
atrium 
Definition
receive blood returning from the systemic and pulmonary circuits
Term
ventricle 
Definition
pumping chambers that pump blood around the two circuits
Term
size of the heart
Definition
fist-size/300g
Term
location of the heart
Definition
mediastinal deep, lower third of the sternum where the base points to the right sholder and the apex points to the lower hip
Term
pericardium
Definition
double walled sac that encloses the heart
Term
fibrous pericardium
Definition
lossly fitting superficial part of the pericardium that protects the heart, anchors it to surrounding structures and prevents overfilling the heart with blood
Term
serous pericardium
Definition
deep to the fibrous pericardium that is a thin, slippery, two-layer serous membrane that forms a closed sac around the heart
Term
parietal layer
Definition
layer of the serous pericardium that lines internal surface of the fibrous pericardium attaching to the large arteries exiting the heart 
Term
visceral layer
Definition
layer of the serous pericardium, aka epicardium,  that is an extension of the parietal layer as it turns inferiorly and continues over the external heart surface 
Term
pericardial cavity
Definition
between the parietal and visceral layers which contains film of serous fluid allowing the mobile heart to work in a relatively friction free environment
Term
epicardium
Definition
superficial, visceral layer of the serous pericardium often infiltrated with fat/
Term
myocardium
Definition
the middle layer of the heart's wall, aka the heart's/cardiac muscle, that forms the bulk of the heart
Term
cardiac skeleton
Definition
collagen and elastic fiber network that reinforces that myocardium internally and anchors the cardiac muscle fibers
Term
endocardium
Definition
third layer of the heart wall that is a glistening white sheet of the endothelium that lines the heart's chambers and covers the fibrous skeleton of the valves
Term
the left and right coronary arteries arise from the?
Definition
aortic trunk
Term
the left coronary artery consists of what?
Definition
2 branches, the anterior interventricular and circumflex
Term
anterior interventricular 
Definition
supplies blood to anterior walls of both ventricles and to interventricular septum (LAD)
Term
circumflex
Definition
supplies left atrium and posterior wall of left ventricle
Term
the right coronoary artery consists of what?
Definition
2 branches, posterior interventricular and marginal
Term
posterior interventricular 
Definition
supplies posterior ventricle wall and meets anterior interventricular at the apex
Term
marginal
Definition
lateral right side of the heart that includes the right atrium 
Term
coronary arteries do what?
Definition
supply blood during the relaxation phase of the heart
Term
blood returns from the coronary veins to where?
Definition
the coronary sinus of the right atrium
Term
atrioventricular valve (AV)
Definition
located between each atrium and ventricle prevent backflow in the the atria when the ventricles contract
Term
tricupsid valve
Definition
the right AV valve that has 3 flexible cusps
Term
bicuspid valve
Definition
the left AV valve, aka mitral valve that has 2 cusps
Term
semilunar valves (SL)
Definition
located at the base of the pulmonary artery and aorta that consists of 3 leaflets that open during contraction and close upon ventricular relaxation that prevent backflow
Term
cardiac muscle cells
Definition
short, broad, branching, 1-2 nuclei, less pronounced banding and functions as a unit (functional syncytium)
Term
skeletal muscle contraction impulses
Definition
muscle fibers stimulated by nerve fiers contract with only soe of the muscle's motor units activated
Term
cardiac muscle contraction impulses
Definition
all fibers in the heart contract as a unit or the heart doesn't contract at all
Term
cardiac muscle contraction occurs because?
Definition
gap junctions electrically tie all cardiac muscle cells together into a single contractile unit
Term
how does the depolarization wave travel across the heart?
Definition
from cell to cell via ion passage through the gap junctions
Term
refractory period
Definition
heart's inexcitable period when Na+ channels are still open or inactivated
Term
refractory period of mycardial cells is long to prevent?
Definition
tetanic contraction
Term
tetanic contraction
Definition
stoppage of the heart's pumping action
Term
what are the energy requirements of the heart to prevent system failure?
Definition

the hearthas more mitochondria than skeletal muscle making it highly dependent on oxygen adaptable to available food sources


system fails due to lack of oxygen with decreased blood flow

Term
intrinsic conduction system
Definition
specialized cells that initiate and distribute impulses across the heart allowing it to depolarize and contract in orderly, sequential manner without dependency on the nervous system
Term
cardiac pacemaker cells/autorythmic cells
Definition
have unstable resting potential capable of spontaneous depolarization
Term
how does the autonomic nervous system modify the heart beat?
Definition
SNS increases heart rate and contractility while the PNS lowers heart rate (vagal tone)
Term
heart sounds
Definition
often described as a lub-dup, are associated with the heart valves closing
Term
1st heart sound (lub)
Definition
occurs as the AV valve closes signifying the point when ventricular pressure rises above arterial pressure (ventricular systole)
Term
2nd heart sound (dub)
Definition
occurs as the SL valves snap shut at the beginning of ventricular relaxation (diastole)
Term
heart murmur
Definition
indicates turbulent blood flow in which timing, duration, location and intensity of murmurs are aids to diagnosis while some are normal
Term
systole
Definition
refers to periods of contraction
Term
diastole
Definition
refers to periods of relaxation
Term
the cardiac cycle (3)
Definition

refers to all events asociated with the blood flow throught the heart during one complete heart beat

1. ventricular filling

2. ventricular systole

3.  early diastole


Term
ventricular filling (4 steps)
Definition

1. occurs in mid to late diastole when heart pressure is low as blood returning from circulation flows into ventricles 

2. once 70% full, SL valves close as ventricle pressure is low

3. atria contracts increasing atrial pressure, delivering remaining 30% of blood to ventricles

3. end diastolic volume (EDV) ventricles are in the last part of diastole containing the max voume of blood they will contain in the cycle

4. atria relaxes and ventricle depolarize

Term
steps of ventricular systole (5)
Definition

1. atria relax as ventricles begin constricting

2. ventricular pressure increases closing AV valves

3. isovolumetric contraction occurs

4. when ventricular pressure exceeds that of the vessels, SL valves open

5. ventricular ejection occurs as blood flows into the aorta and pulmonary trunk


Term
steps of early diastole (4)
Definition

1. occurs immediately after T wave

2. ventricular relaxation as blood is not under pressure (end systolic volume (ESV))

3. atria have been filling behind closed AV valves under increased atrial pressure

4. when atrial pressure exceeds ventricular, AV valves open and passive filling resumes


Term
isovolumetric contraction
Definition
split second period when the vetricles are completely closed chambers and the blood volume in the chambers remains constant as the ventricles contract
Term
cardiac output (CO)
Definition
amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in 1 minute
Term
stroke volume (SV)
Definition
volume of blood pumped out by one ventricle with each beat
Term
CO equation
Definition
CO=HR x SV
Term
what is the average adult CO?
Definition
5L
Term
cardiac reserve 
Definition

difference between resting and maximal CO


cardiac reserve= CO(max) - CO(rest)

Term
stroke volume equation
Definition

difference between EDV and ESV


stroke volume= EDV - ESV

Term
regulation steps of strok volume (3)
Definition

1. preload

2. contractility

3. afterload


Term
preload
Definition
the degree of stretch of cardiac muscle at onset of systole
Term
Frank-Starling Law
Definition
the higher the preload the higher the stroke volume; optimal length of muscle fibers (sarcomers) the max number of active cross bridge attachments between myosin and actin the force of contraction is maximal
Term
venous return
Definition
mosst important factor stretching cardiac muscle as the amount of blood returning to the heart distends its ventricles
Term
preload is increased by?
Definition
excercise or a slow heart rate as there is more time to fill the ventricles (increases EDV, SV and contraction force)
Term
preload is decreased by?
Definition
high heart rate or hypovolemia
Term
contractility
Definition
strength of contraction (independent of preload)
Term
what increases contractility?
Definition
Positive isotrope, increased SNS activity and (nor)epinephrine cause an increase in CA2+ entering the cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid
Term
Negative inotrope
Definition
chemical factor that decreases contractility 
Term
afterload
Definition
how much resistance or pressure the ventricles must overcome to eject blood/back pressure arterial blood exerts on pulmonary and aortic valve
Term
relationship btwn ESV and SV
Definition

high ESV = decreased SV

SV = EDV - ESV (mL/beat)

Term
relationship of SNS and heart regulation
Definition
emotional
Term
relationship between PNS and heart regulation
Definition
the PNS opposes SNS effects after stressful situation has passed, lowering the heart rate but it has little to no effect on cardiac contractility
Term
at rest, what type of vagal output is there?
Definition
constant
Term
vagal tone
Definition
baseline vagal inpute keeps heart rate lower; if it were detached, the SA node (pacemaker) would take over and HR would increase
Term
baroreceptors 
Definition
generates sensory input which responds to changes in systemic blood pressure
Term
Bainbridge (atrial) reflex
Definition
autonomic reflex initiated by increased venous returns and arterial filling that monitors changes in BP which modulates (P)SNS activity
Term
what 2 hormones increases heart rate?
Definition
epinephrine and thyroxine
Term
what ion concentrations are critical for appropriate contractility?
Definition
sodium, potassium, calcium and hydrogen
Term
pericarditis
Definition
inflammation of the pericardium that is painful and may yield adhesions
Term
cardiac tamponade
Definition
fluid accumulation in pericardial activity that compresses the heart and disrupts it's function by decreasing cardiac filling
Term
what are diseases of the pericardium?
Definition
pericarditis and cardiac tamponade
Term
what are diseases of coronary circulation
Definition
angina pectoris and mycardial infarction (MI) (heart attack)
Term
angina pectoris 
Definition
chest pain due to blockage of coronary arterial flow
Term
mycardial infarction (MI)
Definition
blocked blood flow in coronary arteries yields cell death due to anoxia (oxygen deprivation) causing a heart attack
Term
valve diseases
Definition

incompetence and stenosis


Term
incompetence
Definition
leaky valves allow backflow which increases the work to maintain cardiac output
Term
stenosis
Definition
narrowed outlet due to valve constriction which increases work to maintain cardiac output
Term
both valve diseases both act to do what?
Definition
increase afterload
Term
arrythmia
Definition
abnormal heart rate and uncoordinated contractions
Term
fibrillation
Definition
rapid, ineffective contractions
Term
tachycardia 
Definition
fast heart rate
Term
bradycardia
Definition
slow heart rate
Term
rhytmic disturbances (4)
Definition

arrythmia

fibrillation

tachycardia

bradycardia

Term
conduction defects
Definition

ectopic pacemaker

junctional rythm

extra systole

heart block

Term
ectopic pacemaker 
Definition

takes over for SA node (abnormal rhythm)


Term
junctional rythm
Definition
SA node unfunctional; AV node takes over and heart rate slows dramatically (40-60 beats)
Term
extra systole
Definition
extra ventricular contraction (PVC)
Term
heart block
Definition
failure of conduction impulse, atrial ventricular disconnect and rythm slows
Term
diseases of cardiac output (Congestive Heart Failure) (4)
Definition

atherosclerosis

increased BP

mulitple MI

dialated cardiomyopathy

Term
congestive heart failure
Definition
cardiac output is inadequate to meet tissue needs
Term
atherosclerosis
Definition
inadequate coronary oxygen delivery causing hypoxia
Term
increased BP
Definition
increases afterload and thickens the myocardium making it weak over time
Term
mulitple MI
Definition
weakens mycardial walls and disrupts contractions
Term
dialated cardiomyopathy
Definition
myocardium stretched thin making it flacid and increases cardiac work while decreasing cardiac output
Term
pulmonary congestion
Definition
L heart failure as there is poolig of the blood in the pulmonary, venous systems
Term
peripheral congestion 
Definition
right heart failure as there is pooling of blood in the peripheral venous system
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