The study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to eachother. 

all the things that make up the body=detailed

gross anatomy

microscopic anatomy 

The study of the large (macroscopic) body structures visible to the naked eye. 

e.g. heart, digestive organs, bones, muscles.

The study of structures too small to be seen without the aid of a microscope. 

e.g. various cells and their arrangement in  tissues.

Everything your body does is at the cellular level, so we have to learn it at the cellular level. 

The study of the functions of the body's structural machinery. 

i.e. how organs and cells work

What a structure can do depends on its specific form. 

think about what it can do? 

overlap (one works as a review of the other)

Levels of orgnization 

(smallest to most complex)

Subatomic particles

Atoms

molecules

organelles

cells

tissues

organ

organ system

organism

Composed of cells

Similiar Biochemistry

Metabolism

Responsiveness

Capable of reproduction

Composed of Cells

cells

All living organisms are composed of protiens, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

these are not found in anything of nonbiological origin (only living things)

All the chemical reactions happening in a body.

Living organisms build up and break down structures and compounds. 

can assimilate compounds (taking compounds from the environment and using them for growth and activity) more so with plants (CO2, sunlight, minerals), animals eat.

Responsiveness

excitability

____: the ability to respond to changes in the environment

changes=stimuli (plural)=stimulus (singular)

make copies of one's self

not a xerox copy, mixed

passes genes to future generations.

the state of relative constancy in a body's internal environment.

the inside of our body tries to stay at 98.6 degrees F, pH, blood, this allows the body to work at peak effeciency.

dynamic=changing; equilibrium=balance

standing on the teeter totter; if you move in, they move in. if you move out, they move out.

if your pH gets too low it's got to raise it back uo

things are always changing so the body must adjust to maintain homeostasis. 

Recpetor

Control Center

Effector

Sensor that detects change

if you can't detect change you can't adjust to it.

There have to be cells to detect the pH in blood, CO2, O2, temp, touch...

thermometer

Control Center

The part that analyzes the data from the receptor and sends the appropiate responses to the effectors. 

usually the brian, spinal cord

thermostat

The part that responds to the commands from the control center.

usually muscels, glands (autonomic muscles)

air conditioning

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

the response of the body is opposite to the direction of the stimulus (or the origional control response.)

It's warm in the room, your body wants to cool down. Sugaar levels (candy bar body produces insulin to bring sugar levels down -> too low = another hormone to bring it up. 

Body would be exhausted if it stayed at the ideal level all the time.

most common type of control mechanism in the body: body temp, hormone production, blood sugar levels...

The response of the body enhances the origional stimulus so that the stimulus is increased.

5*5=25

things that your body want to get over quickly

ex. blood clotting, labor contractions during birth

Study of the chemistry of living things

4 molecules that they are made of?

basic building block for all matter

e.g., solids, liquids, gasses

everywhere

Atomic Structure

Variations in structure give each atom unique physical and chemical properties

Chemical Bonds

Electrons

Protons

Neutrons

(e-) - negatively charged particles

travel around the nucleus

Positively charged particles

found in the nucleus

particles without a charge

found in the nucleus

is electrically neutral 

(# protons = # electrons)

thoeritical neutral atom

Variations in structure give each atom unique physical and chemical properties

elements

isotopes 

atomic weight

simplest chemical groupings that have unique properties 

they react different

physical characteristics 

(e.g., mass, color)

chemical characterics 

(e.g., bonding patterns with other elements)

elements most frequently occur

one- or two- letter abbreviations for an elements

C, O, N, H = 96% of body weight

P, S, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl

atoms having the same atomic number and different mass numbers

means the number of neutrons is different between the different __.

isotopes with extra neutrons

tend to be atomically unstable

release radiation which can damage cells

The time it takes for a radioisotope to lose half its radioactivity. 

The time it takes for something to go away by half

~ 10 __-__ will get you to "safe"

Diagnoses of disease

e.g., iodine-131 for thyroid problems

destruction of cancer cells 

e.g., cobalt-60 or radium 226

Following the path of an atom in a chemical reaction 

e.g., hydrogen-3 (tritium, 3H) or carbon-14

how they discovered of glycolysis and citric acid cycle

Average of all mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element

corrected of each isotope's abundance in nature

attractions/links that hold atoms together

allows atoms to form molecules.

Ionic Bonds

Covalent Bonds

Hydrogen Bonds

Positively and negatively charged atoms attract

Na+  + Cl-  --->  NaCl 

usually dissolve in water 

want to have a complete valance

any positively charged ion

Na+

any negatively charged ion

Cl-

two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons

strongest of all bonds

because neither atom can really leave

Nonpolar covalent bonds

Polar covalent bonds

electrons are shared equally

e.g., CH4

electrons are shared unequally 

occurs with N and O most often

e.g., H2O

the hydrogen atom attached to one slightly negatively charged atom is attracted to anther slightly negatively charged atom 

e.g., N, O

seen with water, proteins, DNA, and hormones

Molecular Formula

Chemical Equations

Types (based on resulting products)

Types (based on energy flow)

Equilibrium 

Factors influencing reaction rates 

shorthand abbreviations of molecules that show what they contain

subscripts show the number of atoms in the molecules

e.g., water=H2O= 2 hydrogens + 1 oxygen methane=CH4= 1 carbon + 4 hydrogens 

illustrations of chemical reactions using molecular formulas

A  +  B  ---->   C   +   D 

"reactants"     "products" 

Types (based on resulting products)

Synthesis reactions

Decomposition reactions

Exchange Reactions

Synthesis reactions

combining to make something bigger

(anabolic reactions= make something bigger)

A  +  B --->   AB  (larger structure)

breaking something down

(catabolic reactions= breaking down a larger structure

(larger structure) AB  --->   A  +  B

Exchange reactions

one part of a molecule switches to another molecule 

AB  +  C  --->  A  +  BC

AB  +  CD  --->  AC  +  BD

Exergonic reactions

Endergonic reactions

Exergonic reactions

release energy, thys produce heat

most metabolic processes are this type 

(means: from or away from)

tend to happen naturally

need energy, can be chemical or heat

often used to control a series of chemical reactions in the body

(e.g., cooking an egg)

the "lock" step, nonreversible

Equilibrium

most reactions are reversible, so which way the reaction goes depends on the concentration of all molecules involved

A  +  B  <--->  AB

Keq= [prod]/[react]=2/1

if you add AB it'll turn to A + B until the ratio is back to 2/1

concentrations

temperature

particle size

catalysts

think of a car crash

concentrations

the higher the concentrations of reactants, the faster the reaction goes 

10 cars vs. 100 cars

increasing the temperature increases the reaction rate

measurment of the energy in a system (speed)

30mph vs. 60mph

smaller particles (molecules) react faster than larger particles 

same size engine, though, so same speed

VW vs. semi

substances that increase reaction rates without themselves being changed

ice is a catalyst for accidents

enzymes=biological catalysts

proteins structured to help chemical reactions occur

Biochemistry

Properties of Water

Electrolytes

Acids and Bases

The pH scale 

Neutralization

Buffers

Organic Compounds

Enzymes

compounds containing carbond with other elements

all have covalent bonds

compounds not containing carbon

includes water, salts, some acids and bases

Properties of Water

Polar, so readily forms H bonds

Important for chemical reactions

Provides cushioning 

provides cohesion

surface tension 

forms spheres of hydration

constantly grabbing onto each other

stabilizes temperature

doesn't pick up speed, slowing each other down. 

makes it so our body temp doesn't fluctuate drastically

high heat capacity

you've got to put alot of energy into H2O to heat it

forms a type of "skin" at the surface

high heat of vaporization

takes alot of energy (heat) to become a gas

keeps us from dehydrating

medium in which reactions occur

reactant in hydrolysis reactions

R-R'  +  H2O  --->  R-OH  +  H-R'

hydrolysis- to split apart

by surrounding certain organs, water cushions to protect them from physical trauma

e.g., cerebrospinal fluid- fluid that surrounds your brain

dissolved salts

salts- ionic compound whose cation is not the hydrogen ion (H+) and whose anion is not the hydroxyl ion (OH-)

e.g., NaCl

Acids

substance that releases hydroen ions

HCl --->  H+  +  Cl- 

add more H+

substances that bind to hydrogen ions ore releases ions that can bind to hydrogen ions (e.g., OH-)

NaOH  --->  Na+  +  OH- 

OH-  +  H+  --->  H20 

take away H+

The pH formula

pH = -log [H+]

as hydrogen ion concentration goes up, pH goes down

0-------------7-------------14

acidic        neutral           basic

the pH of living cells ~ 7

acidic= marinate, soda, coffee

basic = cleaners

when acids and bases are mized together, salt and water forms

HCl  +  NaOH  ---->   NaCl  +  H2O

salts that prevent drastic changes in pH when acids or bases are added

function by absorbing or releasing H+ as needed

major buffer in the human body

floats around inside your blood

H20 + CO2 <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3- <--> 2H+ + CO3 2-

more acids rxn <---

more bases rxn --->

HCO3- = ___

Families of Small Organic Compounds

Functional Groups

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

carbohydrates

formed from simple sugars

lipids

mainly formed from fatty acids

proteins

formed from amino acids

nucleic acids

fromed from nucleotides

atoms or groups of atoms covalently bonded to an organic molecule

conveys distinct properties to the molecule

e.g., can make molecules hydrophobic or hydrophilic 

hydrophobic- don't like water- hydrocarbons- fats, oils, waxes

hydrophilic- like water- mix well with water

monomers or polymers or sugers

mers-units

contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

--make up 1-2% of the cell mass in animals

not very much, but still something

monosaccharide

disaccharide

polysaccharide

functions of carbohydrates

one sugar unit--simple sugar

formula = (CH2O)n

five carbon sugars (C5H10O5)

ribose and deoxyribose

six carbon sugars (C6H12O6)

glucose, fructose and galactose

five carbon sugars

(C5H10O5)

ribose and deoxyribose

building blocks for nucleic acids

DNA, RNA

Six Carbon Sugars

(C6H12O6)

glucose, fructose and galactose

mostly used for energy production

isomers=compounds having the same molecular formula, but have atome arranged differently

body prefers to use glucose...it will try and convert other energy foms into glucose then utilize it. 

two sugar units

sucrose

lactose

table sugar

glucose + fructose

milk sugar

glucose + galactose

connected together by a Z shaped bond that requires an enzyme to break down

lactose intollerant is when that enzyme isn't made 

symptoms are abdominal cramps and diarrhea. 

more than 2 sugar units 

may be 100s or 1000s

starch

glycogen

glucose storge molecule in plants

plants have energy now and want to store it for later

potatoes

glucose storage molecules in animals

takes 2 enzymes to break down glycogen because the tip to tip carbon bond is different than the side to side carbon bonds

energy source

required structural component of genetic material 

cell identification

energy source

main function

buzzes you full of energy

energy crash

6 C sugars

5 C sugars

DNA RNA

personalized 

when the body notices a cell that is abnormal it is murdered

happes in transplants

contain C and H with only a small amount of O

Functions

Triglycerides

Phospholipids

Steroids

Prostaglandins

organic compounds that are hydrophobic

don't like water

Basic sturctures in membranes

used for energy metabolism

what you try and break down when you want to lose weight

protects and insulates body organs

fat: there are certain places that NEED it

extra insulation--put on your winter pounds

triglycerides

neutral fats

composed of glycerol + 3 fatty acids 

fatty acids

saturated fats

unsaturated fats

lond, unbranched hydrocarbon chain with a -COOH group at one end

can release the H

E

have only single C-C bonds in fatty acid tails 

has maximum number of hydrogens

tend to be solid at room temperature

lard, butter

have one or more C=C in the fatty acid tails

causes kinks in the tail

tend to be liquid at room temperature

vegetable oils

modified triglycerides with two fatty acid tails and a phosphate group

1) phosphate group-head

hydrophilic

2) hydrocarbon "tail"-

hydrophobic

these are important components of cell membranes

4 interlocking carbon rings with varying functional groups

cholesterol

component of cell membranes

liver makes cholesterol--atorvastatin shuts down liver cholesterol production

modified into sex hormones and corticosteroids

estrogen, testosterone, progesterone

required for the synthesis of vitamin D

need in order to absorb calcium

you need cholesterol;however, too much can be bad for your health. It's important to control it on your own w/o the assistance of drugs

help us with:

blood clotting

inflammation

labor contractions

make up 10-30% of the cell mass

a lot considering water makes up ~50%

reason being is that proteins are the things that actually do most everything in your body.

building blocks of proteins

20 common types

H

l

    H2N---C--- COOH

l

R

amino group (left) alpha-carbon (center) carboxyl group (right) hydrogen (top) functional group (botton)

structural framework and mechanical support

movement

catalysis

transport

regulation of pH

regulation of metabolism

body defenses

collagen (connective tissue)

provides strength and flexibility

keratin (skin, hair and nails)

provides strength

actin

myosin

muscle contraction

albumin

flaots around in the blood

assists bicarbonate ion

antibodies

fight diseases

primary structure

secondary structure

tertiary structure

quaternary structure

shape of the chain due to hydrogen bonds

alpha-helix

slinky--wool

beta-pleated sheets

pleated skirt--silk (sheats are microscopic are fingers can't feel it)

3 demensional shape of the chain due to the R groups (on the amino acids)

takes into consideration hydrophilc and hydrophobic interactions

relationship of different chains in a complex protein

in order to have this, the protein must have 2 or more chains

hemoglobin (4)--how it hooks to the other 3 chains

loss of secondary and tertiary structure of a protein

1) causes a loss of function

expecially important with enzymes

why acidosis and alkalosis is impt.

can occur due to changes in temp (too high) or pH (too low or too high)

why you cook meat (make it easier to chew) 

marinate it--acidic--for a better result

cleaners-basic-how they work

nucleotides and nucleic acids

nucleotide

basic kinds of nucleotide-based molecules

5-carbon sugar + phosphate group + base

bases

Adenine (A)

Guanine (G)

Cytosine (C)

Thymine (T)

Uracil (T)

A-T, G-C (DNA)

A-U, G-C (RNA)

nucleic acids

adenosine phosphates

nucleptide coenzymes

nucleic acids

nucleotide polymers

whole bunch of nucleotides hooked together

deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA)= genetic blueprint

gives instructions for protein assembly

every protein your body will ever need...only produces what it needs, though

Ribose nucleic acid (RNA)= protein assemblers

processes genetic instructions from DNA to produce proteins 

mRNA

tRNA

rRNA

adenosine phosphates 

AMP, ADP, ATP, cAMP

energy carriers

when your cells need energy it makes ATP then breaks it down

chemical messengers

cAMP-cyclic AMP

second messengers

nucleotide coenzymes

NADH, FADH2

transport hydrogen ions and electrons

useful during the steps to make ATP

proteins that promote specifec metabolic reactions

help things to occur

amount of energy needed for a reaction to occur

endergonic reactions need energy 

control steps (can't go back)

enzymes reduce the activation energy needed for a reaction 

factory machine

they strain chemical bonds of a substrate 

after substrate enters enzyme, the enzyme torks itself and strains the bond.

molecule on which an enzyme works

the substrate is chemically changed

the enzyme remains the same

place where the substrate fits into the enzyme

usually very specifec

this rxn happens with this enzyme, another rxn happens with another enzyme

functional enzyme that consists of two parts

most enzymes are this type

won't work unless both parts are there

apoenzyme=protein portion of the enzyme

cofactor=nonprotein portion of the enzyme

attaches at a separate active site

required for the enzyme to function

may be a metal ion or a coenzyme-small organic molecule that acts as a cofactor

usually a vitamin

basic structural and functional unit of living organisms

smallest thing that is living -> thing that does the work

cell membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus

outermost barrier that defines the edge of the cell

1) "fluid mosaic" model

2) consists of

3) framework

4) selectively permeable 

5) cholesterol

6) proteins

a pattern with some shifts

proteins and lipids that form a constantly changing pattern

proteins

lipids

carbohydrates

phospholipid bilayer

hydrophilic heads

polar- phosphate group

allign on the outside of the bilayer

hydrophobic tails

allign on the inside of the bilayer

acts as a barrier agains water-soluble molecules, but allows the passage of lipid-soluble molecules

reason-b/c there are many more water soluble molecules (if it took them all in it'd have too many) this way it can choose if it needs it or not.

the membrane, thus, is selectively permeable and controls the movement of substances into and out of the cells

helps stabilize the membrane

makes it tough

integral proteins

peripheral proteins

glycocalyx

firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer

includes transmembrane proteins

they go all the way through the membrane

includes proteins that act as:

receptors

channels

carriers

branching sugar groups attached onto most proteins on the exterior of the cell

helps to bind adjacent cells together

sticky

provide (with proteins themselves) an identification pattern which allows defensive cells to recognize self-cells as opposed to foreign cells/particles

immune system

microvilli

membrane junctions

minute-finger like extentions of the plasma membrane

increases surface area which allows greater absorbtion

seen in small intestines and kidneys

specializations holding cells together

tight junctions

desmosomes

gap junctions

tight junctions

proteins from adjacent membranes fuse together like a zipper

relatively impermeable and found in GI tract (mouth to anus) and capillaries of the brain

blocks anything from getting through

not fully developed in young children which is the reason it is so dangerous for them to ingest lead paint 

adhesive spots that hold cells together 

like rivets

attached to the cytoskeleton for strength

found in the skin, heart muscles and uterus

hollow protein tubes connecting adjacent cells

allows the passage of chemical substances from one cell to another

embryonic cells 

how everyone knows what they are

found in heart cells (contract together) and smooth muscle (move food to small intestines) 

Cellular material within the cell membrane but outside the nucleus 

nucleus is not an organelle

Cytosol

Inclusions

Organelles

Chemical substances that can be detected with an electron microscope.

maybe stored nutrients (glycogen), pigments, or crystals (uric acid). 

Specialized cellulare compartments that have their own unique functions. 

Little organs

Organelles consist of: 

Mitochondria

Ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum (RER, SER)

Golti apparatus

Lysosomes

Peroxisomes

Cytoskeleton

Mitochondria

"Power Plants" of the cell

makes energy (ATP)

provides most of the ATP supply via aeribic respiration

sugars in body...use O2 you breathe in--> break down--> CO2 out

bimembranous (outer and inner)

They contain DNA and RNA (can replicate itself) impt because you can make more mitochondria in cells of organs/tissues that use more energy (muscles). 

Particles of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

synthesize proteins

network of membranes that provide a tubular interconnection tussue throuough the cell 

conveyer belt --moving things from place to place

Rough Endoplasmic Retuiculum (RER)

Smoothe Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

rough because it has ribosomes attached to its surface.

produces proteins and membranes

has no ribosomes

involved in lipid metabolism (making and breking them down), steroid synthesis (cholesterol), and detoxification of drugs. 

Stacks of flattened, membranous sacs

modifies, concentrates and packages proteins and membranes produced by RER.

slaps on carbohydrates

ships out a bunch of hormones that are stored

puts the finished product in a vesicle for transport.

membranous sacs containing powerful digenstive enzymes

digest foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses, toxins)

help with breakdown of worn out or nonfunctional cellular parts.

specialized lysosomes

membranous sacs containing oxidase enzymes detoxify alcohol, formaldehyde and other chemicals.

prolific in the liver and kidney cells

"cell skeleton"

provides support (shape) and cellular movemement.

Microfilaments

Microtubules

intermediate filaments

thin strands of a contractile protein (i.e., actin)

cause cellular movement 

important part of myofibrils in the muscle cells 

aid in cell division (telophase indentions caused by these)

hollow tubes of sphericle proteins

larger than microfilaments (stronger)

can attach to and move organelles 

provide strength to the cilia and flagella

are attached to desmosomes

bridge cables 

uterus, skin and heart

(provide extra stength)

2 nonmembranous structures composed of microtubules 

asters

aid in distribution of chromosomes during cell replication (cell division)--same

numerous tiny hairlike parts that serve to move fluids (e.g., mucus) across cell surfaces

found on the cells lining the respiratory trant (all breathing tubes) and reproductive tract.

larger processes that are structurally similiar to cilia

usually only one per cell (humans) --> sperm

allows sperm to swim

the part that directs the activities of the cell

controls what proteins get made and therefore activity

most cells have only one some cells have many (multinucleated)--skeletal muscle, some even have none (Anucleated) --RBC

nuclear envelope

Nucleolus

Chromatin

Double Layer of membranes that surrounds the nucleus

lood at interphase --> still intact

layers are joined at the nuclear pores (controls substances going in and out)

(bump=lower, indention=upper)

selectively permeable

chemistry inside the nucleus is different than inside the cell

"little nucleus" 

small dense body in the nucleolus that contain RNA and proteins

produces ribosomes

thread-like

loosley coiled fibers of DNA molecules and proteins (histones). 

chromatin wraps around histones (condenses) and forms chromosomes 

contains info for protein synthesis

Movement through cell membranes

passive processes 

active processes

cell membrane potential

simple difussion

facilitated difussion

osmosis

filtration

random movement of solute particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration to an area of low concentration until the solution is at equilibrium. 

moves gases (O2, CO2) and lipid soluble molecules (alcohol, steroids) across the cell membrane (birth control patch is a steroid).

influences the movement of small ions through protein channels

"helped" diffusion with the aid of membrane proteins (AKA carrier proteins), the protein changes shape.

allows sutars (e.g., glucose) and amino acids to cross the membrane.

selectively permeable membrane

osmotic pressure

tonicity

pressure required to stop osmosis

directly proportional to solute concentration differences

*bigger difference in # of particles = higher osmotic pressure

relative solute concentration of one solution compared to another

size of solutes and amount of H2O 

the ration of the two solutions

hypertonic

hypotonic

isotonic

solution with the greater solute concentration

water will move into it

ex. distilled water = cells burst

solution with a lower solute concentration

water will move out of it

ex. sea water makes cells shrivel

both solutions have the same solute concentration

water moves in and out; therefore, no net change

isotonic ex. IV used for dehydrated persons

separation of larger particles from smaller ones by forcing the smaller ones through pores. 

in the body, hydrostatic pressure forces fluids and solutes in blood through capillary walls.

due to heart contractions

active transport

bulk transport

solutes go from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. 

may use up to 40% of a cells energy supply. Produces heat. muscles use active transport alot.

uses protein carriers (solute pumps) dependant on APT for energy.

primary active transport creates a concentration gradient. secondary active transport uses the gradient (from primary) to transport something else.

primary- sodium-potasium pump (Na+-K+ ATPase)

secondary- glucose-sodium symport (in the small intestines)

exocytosis

endocytosis

conveyance of substances out of the cell

controls hormone release, muscle secretions, neurotransmitter release, and waste ejection from cells.

conveyance of substances into the cell

the engulfed substance is contained in a vesicle (small) or vacuole (large).

phagocytosis

pinocytosis

receptor-mediated endocytosis

"cell eating"

the cell engulfs larger particles such as bacteria and cellular debris

? where= macrophages (big eaters) and white blood cells.

"cell drinking"

the cell engulfs many small nutrient molecules

? where = many cells can do this especially cells of the small intestines

specific protein recepors, on the cell exterior, select what is engulfed.

substances like LDL, hormones, and enzymes have receptors on some cells 

LDL= bad cholesterol 

the electrical potential resulting from a spearation of oppositely charged particles

inside and outside of the cell

All body cells (at rest)- exhibit a resting membrane potential (-20-- -200 milivolts).

main cause- small leak of K+ out of the cell and the sodium potassium ATPase which pumps 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ in to the cell. Thus, more positively charged ions are on the outside of the membrane while more negatively charged ions line the inside of the membrane. 

cell cycle

interphase

chromosomes

mitosis

cytokinesis

control fo cell reproduciton

cell development

combination of G1, S, and G2 phases

radioactive nucleotides became made into DNA --> S

G1

G0

S

G2

Cells that, as far as we understand, perminately cease to divide, go into this at the end of G1

neurons and cardiac muscles 

if you have a heart attack or stroke, cells that die will not be replaced

synthesis stage when DNA replicates

molecules of DNA complexed with proteins

condensed chromatin

23 pairs in humans

chromatid

centromere

duplicate of a specific chromosome

produced during S phase

copies of the dads (X) copies of the moms (X).

division of chromosomes into 2 identical groups during cell replication 

4 stages

prophase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase

stage that sets up the division process

centrioles move to opposite poles

microtubules form into spindle apparatus

nuclear envelope & nucleolus disappear

chromatin condenses to form chromosomes

chromosomes line up midway between the centrioles ("at the equator")

spindle fibers attach to centromere

spindle fibers shorten and the centromeres split

chromosomes are pulled towards the centrioles

look at outside edge (smooth)

chromosomes reach the centrioles and begin to uncoil

nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear

spindle apparatus breaks down

look at outside edge (indented)

divison of cytoplasm between the two daughter cells

a ring of microfilaments contract and cause the cell to divide into 2 parts (2 new cells)

forms two "daughter" cells with identical genetic information

cytoplasm with its organelles is NOT evenly divided

*you've got the DNA to make more if you need it*

cell reproduction (includes mitosis) is needed for body growth and tissue repair. 

cuts and scrapes get fixed and you grow.

surface area: volume relationship

contact inhibition

genetic factors

MPF (maturation promoting factor)

colume of the cell cannot exceen the surface area's ability to allow the exchange of nutrients and wastes.

this is why cells are microscopic

when cells touch other cells then they tend to stop dividing 

fill up a flask with cells, they cover the bottom of the flask then they stop dividing. 

parts of the body that divide faster than others

skin -- mucosa (digestive tract) faster 

liver -- slow

nerves -- none

a certain amount (threshold) of this protein complex is needed before cells go from G2 into mitosis

biological timer

cell differentiation

cancer

specialization of cells into their functional form

the structural variation (functional too) is caused by selective gene expression

cells don't have to use all the genes...they pick and choose based on the time and need

this allows cells with the same genetic info to have vastly different functions

cancer

uncontrolled or abnormal cell growth 

cells loose their contact inhibition

neoplasia

hyperplasia

anaplasia

metastasis

growth of abnormal cells (undifferientated cells) 

pap smear

the spreading of cancer cells from their site of orgin

breast cancer --> lymph --> pancreas --> 6 mo.

death from cancer is due to these fast growing often non functional cells blocking blood flow and consuming excessive amounts of nutrients

nucleic acids and protein synthesis consists of: 

genetic information

Replication of DNA

Changes in Genetic information

protein synthesis

gene expression

genetic information consists of:

inherited traits

gene

DNA molecules

genetic cod

chromosome numbers

traits that are passed from parent to offspring

in the DNA material

skin color, balding

nucleotides are arranged in a specific order

structure = double helix

nucleotides: paired with complementary nucleotides in a second strand

(2) A - T 

(3) G - C 

adanine, thymine, guanine, cytosine

Homo sapiens=humans=23 pairs (46) chromosomes

half from mom; half from dad

23rd pair of chromosomes 

either X or Y

XX = female

XY= male

X=colorblindness, Y= testosterone

other 22 pairs of chromosomes

contain most of genetic information not involved with determining gender of the individual.

Helicase

DNA Polymerase

 "Base-pairing"

semiconservative replication

enzyme that untuists and separates the DNA molecule into its two complementary nucleotide chains

"unzipps it"

enzyme that puts the new nucleotides in place

connects A-T, G-C, T-A, C-G

added nucleotides are complementary to the nucleotides in the old strand

A T C C G A T T G 

T A G G C T A A C 

in the two DNA molecules formed, one strand is old and one strand is new. 

advantage because one strand is ond and one strand is new. confidence in replication

mutation

effects of mutation

mutagens

chromosome disorders

change in genetic information

many different types

since there is a large amount of genetic information, mutations do occur occasionally. 

the most serious are those that decrease a cell's efficiency

DNA mutations to cells in the developing embryo can also cause serious problems

the most serous are those that decrease a cell's efficiency

phenylketonuria (PKU)

cells are unable to utilize phenylalanine (an amino acid). so the cell starts to break it down but it can't finish the process. the intermediate compound(s) build up and cause toxicity.

once cell with mutations can affect the many cells that it becomes. Thus, it couls affect organs or other body parts. 

body parts formed wrong, PKU

Mutagens

things that can cause mutations

UV light (sun/tanning bed)

X rays (working there with no protection)

chemicals in tobacco and petroleum products (smoke and chew, tar)

some metals (copper)

nondisjunction

failure of certain chromosomes to separate during the formation of sex cells

believed to occur during egg formation

usually results in the death of the embryo becuause, post fertilization, the cells have too many or too few of that chromosome.

50% or 150% of what it needs

those that can survive=sex chromosomes.

sex chromosome disorders (due to the nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes)

must have at least 1 X 

it holds too much info not too.

turner's syndrome

klinefelter syndrome

XYY condition

XO

individual is sterile and the sex organs remain immature (apper female)

she will prematurely age and has a short life expectancy (often less than 20 yrs)

klinefelter syndrome

XXY

individual will be sterile with feminine musculature and partially developed breasts (appears male).

tend to be tall and mentally retarded

nondisjunction must occur in the sperm of both Y chromosomes to remain

individual (male) usually is over 6ft tall and slightly mentally retarted

it has no effect on fertility

trisomy

down syndrome

nondisjunction in autosome where the zygote (feterilized egg) get 3 chromosomes of one kind. 

for most chromosomes, they contain too much information. trisomy causes death. 

Down Syndrome

trisomy of the 21st chromosome pair (92-95%)

other 5% = trisomy 22

linked to mother's age (<20 yrs chance=1/1550 ; >45yrs chance= 1/25)

they have undeveloped reproductive organs and often have protruding tongue

many, not all, are mentally retarded and some have heart malformations

protein synthesis

proteins are composed of polypeptide chains. the sequence of amino acids for the chains is encoded in the DNA.

requires energy input (ATP) from the cell

messenger RNA (mRNA)

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

mRNA

takes information from the DNA to the ribosomes, where the protein will be made.

rRNA

forms part of the ribosomes

tRNA

carries the amino acids to the ribosome for polypeptide assembly

has a three base sequence ("anticodon")

transcription

editing/processing of mRNA

translation

the DNA information is encoded into mRNA

occurs in the nucleus

the section of DNA, with the pattern for the polypeptide, uncoils

the mRNA attaches to the DNA in a complementary fashion. 

DNA- A T C G C A C T T 

mRNA-U A G C G U G A A 

each set of 3 bases is a "codon." each codon codes for a specific amino acid.

after the mRNA has matched up with the entire DNA section (gene), it detaches. 

editing/processing of mRNA

exons

introns

the information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble the polypeptide

occurs in the cytoplasm

translation consists of

ribosome holds the mRNA

ribosome attaches the mRNA codon to the correct tRNA anticodon

ribosome hooks the amino acids together and then moves to handle the next codon

when the last amino acid is hooked up, the protein is released by the ribosome.

individual characteristics result from the interactions of one's heredity with one's environment

heredity

environmental factors

the interactions of one's heredity with one's environment 

equally important

transmission of genetic information from parent to offspring

via DNA in the sperm and egg

environmental factors can and do influence the way genes are expressed

besides genes, the following can also be affected by:

height (diet and disease)

avg height 1900 5'4" avg height now 5'7"

skin color (exposure to UV light and liver damage--jaundice)

intelligence (diet, head injuries, and even parental encouragement)

fetal alcohol syndrome, protein defieciency can lead to mental retardation