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Anatomy Lecture Exam 2
Bones, Joints, Muscles, Nervous Tissue, Spinal Nerves
175
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
03/24/2014

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Term
Functions of the skeletal system
Definition
-support
-movement
-protection (skull, ribcage)
-blood production
-electrolyte balance (calcium stores)
-acid-base balance (absorbs or releases alkaline salts)
-detox (absorbs heavy metals)
Term
Shapes of bones (6)
Definition
-long
-short
-flat
-irregular
-sesamoid
-sutural
Term
long bone
Definition
-have diapysis and epiphysis
-ex: humerus
Term
short bone
Definition
ex: carpals
Term
flat bone
Definition
ex: skull
Term
irregular bone
Definition
ex: vertebra
Term
sesamoid bone
Definition
ex: patella
Term
sutural bone
Definition
anomaly bone within a suture
Term
solid/compact bone
Definition
dense/hard bone
-no marrow
-made up of osteons, which are made up of lamellae
Term
diaphysis
Definition
-shaft of long bone
-lined with endosteum (lining made of osteoblasts and osteoclasts)
-inside is the marrow cavity (yellow bone marrow)
Term
epiphysis
Definition
-ends of long bones
-covered with articular cartilage
-contains epiphyseal plate
-has spongy bone (for cushioning on impact) and red marrow inside
Term
periosteum
Definition
outer coating on bone
-isolates and protects bone from surrounding tissues
-attachment for vessels and nerves
-involved in bone growth and repair
-fibers interwoven with tendons (Sharpey fibers) and extend into bone matrix
Term
Sharpey fibers
Definition
-fibers that bind muscle to bone (tendons)
-perforate periosteum
Term
endosteum
Definition
internal surface of bone
-lined with osteocytes and osteoblasts for remodeling
Term
Bone is hard because of
Definition
inorganic compounds like calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and other elements
Term
Bone is flexible because
Definition
there are collagen fibers in the matric
Term
4 types of bone cells
Definition
-osteoprogenitor cells
-osteoblasts
-osteocytes
-osteoclasts
Term
osteoprogenitor cells
Definition
-stem cells
-multiply continually
-mostly differentiate into osteoblasts
Term
osteoblasts
Definition
build bone (secrete matrix and mineralize bone)
-non-mature cells
-rows in endosteum and periosteum
Term
osteocytes
Definition
-mature bone cells
-live in lacunae - connected to each other viz canaliculi
Term
osteoclasts
Definition
-dissolve matrix through HCL
-for remodeling or if Calcium is needed elsewhere
Term
trabeculae
Definition
thin plates
-oriented up and down for compression
-oriented across tension lines to bear bending forces
Term
spongy bone
Definition
lattice of trabeculae and spicules to make strong but lightweight and impact absorbing bone
Term
osteon
Definition
the concentric circles (lamellae) that are all supplied nutrients from the same central canal
-contains lamellae, lacunae, canaliculae
Term
endochondral ossification
Definition
-make cartilage, then convert it to bone
STEPS:
-begins with perichondrium case with hyaline cartilage in the middle
-bony collar forms on sides with enlarged cells in primary ossification center (diaphysis)
-vascular invasion - primary marrow cavity forms, enlarged cells in secondary ossification centers (epiphyses)
-cartilage area between epiphysis and diaphysis form (growth plate)
-epiphyseal plate ossifies for adult bone
Term
intramembranous ossification
Definition
in skull and clavicle
-osteoblasts in fibrous membrane secrete matrix
-matrix mineralizes
Term
epiphyseal plate
Definition
allow for bone elongation
Term
bone remodeling
Definition
osteoblasts build bone
-osteoclasts break down old tissue
Term
PTH (parathyroid hormone)
Definition
-secreted in response to drop in blood calcium levels
-stimulates osteoblasts which stimulate osteoclasts
-purpose is to increase calcium in blood
Term
calcitonin
Definition
secreted by thyroid
-promotes osteoblasts (bone building)
Term
bone fractures (7)
Definition
-open/displaced
-greenstick
-comminuted
-linear
-transverse
-oblique
-spiral
Term
steps to bone fracture repair
Definition
-hematoma formation
-formation of fibrocartilagenous soft callus
-bony/hard callus formation - osteoblasts deposit temporary bony collar to unite bone fragments for ossification
-remodeling
Term
osteopenia
Definition
low bone density (still within normal range)
Term
osteoporosis
Definition
bone density is below normal range
Term
achondroplastic dwarfism
Definition
long bones of limbs stop growing in childhood
Term
rickets
Definition
soft bone occurs with low vitamin D and/or calcium in diet
-legs bow outward
Term
symphysis
Definition
2 bones joined by fibrocartilage (pubis; vertebrae)
Term
synchondrosis
Definition
joint bound by hyaline cartilage (epiphyseal growth plate - joint between epiphysis and diaphysis)
Term
fibrous joint
Definition
AKA synarthrosis
-collagen fibers from matrix of one bone cross joint to bind into matrix of other bone
-found in sutures, gomphoses and syndemoses
Term
sutures
Definition
immobile (or very slightly mobile) fibrous joints
-SKULL
-serrate, lap/squamous and plane/butt
Term
gomphoses
Definition
like nail hammered into wood
-TEETH
-allows for sensation of pressure with periodontal ligament
Term
synovial joints
Definition
called diarthroses
most movement
-contain articular capsule, articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage), synovial fluid, meniscus, fat pads, articular discs, bursae
Term
bony joints
Definition
sysnostosis
-epiphyseal plates fuse
Term
articular capsule
Definition
-fibrous capsule - dense outer layer that retains fluid
-synovial membrane - inner layer contains fibroblasts which make synovial fluid
Term
articular cartilage
Definition
-hyaline cartilage at both ends reduces friction and aborbs shock, matrix that aborbs and releases fluid like a sponge
Term
synovial fluid
Definition
-created by fibroblasts
-provides lubrication
-nourishment for chondrocytes of articular cartilage
-shock absorber
Term
meniscus
Definition
in knee
-absorb shock/pressure
-improve fit to stablize joint and reduce chance of dislocation
Term
fat pad
Definition
protects cartilage
Term
bursa
Definition
fluid flilled fibrous sac that protects tendons from getting pinched in joints
Term
cruciate ligaments
Definition
in knee
-ligaments inside joint that cross from one side to another to prevent displacement of femur and tibia
Term
articular discs
Definition
separate synovial joint into two separate cavities
-jaw and clavicle
Term
movements possible at synovial joints (16)
Definition
-flexion
-extension
-abduction
-adduction
-circumduction
-rotation
-inversion
-eversion
-plantarflexion
-dorsiflexion
-elevation
-depression
-protraction
-retraction
-pronation
-supination
Term
ACL
Definition
prevents hyperextension of knee
Term
PCL
Definition
prevents femur from slipping off front of tibia
Term
classification of synovial joints (6)
Definition
-hinge
-gliding
-pivot
-condyloid (ellipsoid)
-saddle
-ball and socket
Term
hinge joint
Definition
angular movement in single plane (flexion and extension)
Term
gliding joint
Definition
two flat or slightly curved bones gliding against each other
-carpals, tarsals, vertebrae
Term
pivot joint
Definition
-permit rotation - projection of one bone fits into the other
-atlas/axis; proximal radioulnar
Term
saddle joint
Definition
lots of movement in many directions
-thumb
Term
condyloid/ellipsoid joint
Definition
oval surface meets with depression on opposite bone
-fingers move laterally or flex over plam
Term
ball and socket joint
Definition
-round head in cup shaped holder
-hip and shoulder
Term
osteoarthritis
Definition
-from wear and tear
-bone spurs develop where cartilage wears away
-painful but not generally immobilizing
Term
rheumatoid arthritis
Definition
autoimmune
-erosion of cartilage and bone promotes abnormal bone remodeling
Term
slipped disc
Definition
disc gets out of whack/bulging
-can pinch nerves
Term
ganglion cyst
Definition
fluid in bursa
Term
functions of muscle (5)
Definition
-movement
-stability
-openings (sphincters)
-heat production
-glycemic control (glucose balance in body)
Term
endomysium
Definition
surrounds each muscle fiber
Term
perimysium
Definition
wraps muscle fascicles
Term
muscle fascicles
Definition
bundles of muscle fibers
Term
muscle fibers
Definition
bundles of myofibrils
Term
epimysium
Definition
wraps entire muscle
Term
muscle
Definition
bundle of muscle fascicles
Term
fascia
Definition
separates different muscles from each other
Term
fixator muscle
Definition
anchors, provides stability
Term
antagonist
Definition
opposes prime mover - slows movement
Term
synergist
Definition
helper muscle
Term
prime mover (agonist)
Definition
provides most of the force for a movement
Term
sit-ups agonists
Definition
abdominals, hip flexors
Term
sit-ups synergists
Definition
obliques, rectus femoris
Term
5 rules of skeletal muscle activity
Definition
-muscles cross 1+ joints (usually)
-bulk of muscle is proximal to joint
-2+ attachments (origin and insertion)
-muscles pull (cannot push)
-insertion moves towards origin during contraction
Term
Origin
Definition
-more stationary end
-usually proximal
Term
insertion
Definition
-mobile end
-usually distal
Term
sarcolemma
Definition
plasma membrane around muscle fiber
Term
sarcoplasm
Definition
cytoplasm in a muscle fiber/muscle cell
Term
muscle fibers/cells are made up of
Definition
myofibrils
Term
myofibrils are made up of
Definition
myofilaments which create the bands
Term
muscle parts in increasing size
Definition
myofilaments
-myofibrils
-muscle fiber (cell)
-muscle fascicle
-muscle
Term
visual bands in muscle
Definition
created by myofilaments
-I band = light band
-A band = dark band
Term
sarcomere
Definition
contractile unit of muscle fiber
Term
thin filaments
Definition
made of troponin, tropomyosin, g actin
Term
thick filaments
Definition
made of myosin
-have heads
Term
long fibers in myofilaments
Definition
-tropomyosin - thin
-myosin - thick
Term
g actin
Definition
has binding sites for myosin called active site
Term
troponin
Definition
binds to calcium to change shape, move tropomyosin so it can bind to myosin and move muscle
Term
tropomyosin
Definition
covers active sites on G actin until troponin is activated with calcium to move it
Term
bare zone
Definition
middle of myosin filament where there are no heads (H band)
Term
neuromuscular junction
Definition
-synaptic knob
-synaptic cleft
-synaptic vescicles
-acetylcholine receptors
Term
sarcoplasmic reticulum
Definition
stores Ca2+
Term
motor unit
Definition
all the muscle fibers innervated by one neuron (4-thousands)
-either ALL fast twitch OR ALL slow twitch
Term
sliding filament theory of contraction
Definition
acetylcholine comes through synaptic vesicles into synaptic cleft
-ACh is received by ACh receptors on sarcolemma
-T-tubules allow ACh to flow through sacroplasm
-excitation of t-tubules stimulates sacroplasmic reticulum to release Ca2+
-Ca2+ binds to troponin to move tropomyosin on thin filament
-myosin (thick) binds to actin (thin)
-myosin heads move to contract the muscle fiber
-ACh stops flowing and Ca2+ is reabsorbed by sarcoplasmic reticulum
Term
fast twitch
Definition
muscle fibers that respond and tire quickly
-white meat (low vascularization)
-sprinters
-fast glycolytic
Term
slow twitch
Definition
-respond slowly and tire slowly
-dark meat - myoglobin transports O2 (red)
-marathon runners
Term
muscles contain both fast and slow twitch fibers BUT
Definition
they are separated out by motor unit
Term
smooth muscle
Definition
-no striations bc thick and thin filaments are not parallel
-no t-tubules
-can do mitosis (uterus needs to grow)
-no direct innervation from neuron
-maintains tone
-low energy requirements
Term
cardiac muscle
Definition
-only one nucleus per muscle
-rich in glycogen (stores sugar) and myoglobin (transports O2)
-large mitochondria
-resistant to fatigue
-intercalated discs (gap junctions)
Term
3rd class lever
Definition
fulcrum
effort
load
EX: biceps brachii
Term
2nd class lever
Definition
fulcrum
load
effort
EX: calf muscles
Term
1st class lever
Definition
load
fulcrum
effort
EX: holding up head w traps
Term
parts of a lever
Definition
-fulcrum
-effort
-resistance
Term
organization of nervous system
Definition
CNS: spinal cord AND brain
PNS: sensory (afferent - arrive) AND motor (efferent - exit)
sensory: visceral sensory AND somatic sensory
motor: visceral motor AND somatic motor
visceral motor: sympathetic AND parasympathetic
Term
efferent
Definition
exiting
motor
-begin in CNS and end in muscle
Term
afferent
Definition
arriving
sensory
begin anywhere in the body, but end in CNS
Term
neuron
Definition
nerve cell/fiber
Term
functions of nervous system
Definition
-movement stimulation
-maintains homeostasis
-receives information
Term
nerve
Definition
bundle of nerve fibers in PNS
Term
interneuron
Definition
-entirely within CNS
-receive signals and make decisions about bodily responses to stimuli
-make up 90 % of nerves
Term
functions of neurons
Definition
-excitable - receive stimuli
-conductive - pass electrical signals through plasma membrane
-secrete - neurotransmitters
Term
astrocytes
Definition
-star shaped
-most abundant glial cells in CNS
-brace neurons
-form barrier between capilaries and neurons
-control chemical environment of brain
Term
ogliodendrocytes
Definition
have up to 15 arms
-produces myelin sheath in CNS
Term
neuroglia
Definition
supportive cells within the nervous system (not neurons)
Term
microglia
Definition
spider-like phagocytes in CNS
Term
ependymal cells
Definition
line cavities of CNS
-produce cerebrospinal fluid
Term
Schwann cells
Definition
form myelin sheath in PNS
Term
satelite cells
Definition
surround cell bodies in PNS
-provide electrical insulation and chemical regulation of environment
Term
multipolar neuron
Definition
one axon, many dendrites branching off of cell body
Term
unipolar neuron
Definition
one axon branching off of cell body which then branches like a T to form dendrites and terminal ends
-usually found in afferent spinal cord neurons
Term
bipolar neuron
Definition
one axon, cell body, one dendrite
Term
myelination
Definition
insulating layer around a nerve fiber
Term
myelin
Definition
speeds electrical signal travel
Term
damage to myelin sheath
Definition
disrupts nerve function (like MS)
Term
gray matter
Definition
-unmyeliated nerve cells
-cell bodies
-neuroglia
-dendrites of interneurons and motor neurons
Term
white matter
Definition
-myelinated - fat is white
OR non-myelinated
-motor, sensory or interneurons
Term
nodes of ranvier
Definition
spaces between sections of myelination
Term
action potential
Definition
change in charge that travels as a wave along the membrane of a neuron
Term
resting potential
Definition
Na+ outside cell membrane
K+ ions inside membrane
inside is mostly negative
Term
initiation of neuron impulse
Definition
stimulus of adequate strength (above threshold)
Term
depolarization
Definition
stimulus depolarizes membrane allowing Na+ to flow in initiating an action potential
Term
repolarization
Definition
membrane returns to negative potential through sodium potassium pump which puts them back to initial places - requires ATP
Term
threshold
Definition
minimum level of stimulus needed to produce action potential
Term
how do impulses cross synapses to next neuron
Definition
neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft from vesicle
-then binds to receiving neuron's membrane
Term
how does action potential end?
Definition
when neurotransmitter is broken down, Na+ channels close
Term
dopamine
Definition
too much - schizophrenia
too little - parkinsons
Term
seratonin
Definition
too little - depression
Term
cervical enlargement
Definition
extra nerves in cervical area of spinal cord to innervate upper limbs
Term
lumbar enlargement
Definition
extra nerves in lumbar area of spinal cord to innervate lower limbs
Term
cauda equina
Definition
from L2-S5
Term
dura mater
Definition
tough fibrous outermost layer
-between epidural and subdural space
covers brain and divides R and L sections
Term
arachnoid
Definition
simple squamous epithelium
-network of collagen and elastin fibers
-subarachnoid space has trabeculae as scaffolding - contains CSF
Term
pia mater
Definition
delicate innermost meningial layer
-contains blood vessels
-bound firmly to brain and spinal cord
Term
epidural space
Definition
between dura mater and bone
Term
subdural space
Definition
between dura mater and spinal cord
Term
spinal tap
Definition
draws CSF from subarachnoid space
Term
spinal nerves
Definition
31 total
-8 cervical
-12 thoracic
-5 lumbar
-5 sacral
-1 coccygeal
Term
ventral roots
Definition
motor
-front of spine
-has rootlets (6-8) that connect it to spinal cord
Term
dorsal roots
Definition
sensory
-back of spine
-has rootlets (6-8) that connect it to spinal cord
Term
conus medullaris
Definition
bottom of spinal cord around L1
Term
dorsal ramus
Definition
innervates back body
Term
ventral ramus
Definition
innervates lateral and anterior skin, muscles and limbs
Term
dorsal horns of gray matter in spinal cord
Definition
sensory
Term
ventral horns of gray matter in spinal cord
Definition
motor
Term
dermatome
Definition
region on the skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve
Term
endoneurium
Definition
thin loose connective tissue surrounding nerve fiber
Term
perineurium
Definition
sheath around fascicles
Term
epineurium
Definition
sheath around nerve
Term
nerve plexus
Definition
tangle/interweaving of nerves
Term
names of plexuses (4)
Definition
-cranial (C1-C5)
-brachial (C5-T1)
-lumbar (T12-L4)
-sacral (L4-S1)
Term
phrenic nerve
Definition
in cranial plexus
-innervates diaphragm
Term
radial nerve
Definition
in brachial plexus
-tingling in arm if held up too long
Term
ulnar nerve
Definition
in brachial plexus
-funny bone
Term
median nerve
Definition
in brachial plexus
-carpal tunnel
Term
lateral femoral cutaneous nerve
Definition
in lumbar plexus
-anterior thigh becomes numb or painful
Term
sciatic nerve
Definition
in sacral plexus
Term
reflex arc
Definition
-somatic receptors register stimulus
-afferent nerve fibers carry message to dorsal horn of spinal cord
-integrating center in spinal cord or brainstem issue signal
-efferent nerve carry motor impulse to skeletal muscle
Term
ascending tracts
Definition
sensory
-prefix spino-
Term
descending tracts
Definition
motor
-suffix -spinal
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