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ANATOMY FINAL! PART 2
Death Sentence--I mean....overview of anatomy! :D ..... D:
151
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
12/11/2011

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Cards

Term
– Hard palate
Definition
formed by palatine and maxillary bones
Term
– Soft palate
Definition
formed of muscle in shape of arch
Term
– Soft palate (cont.)
Definition
• Partition between mouth and nasopharynx
• Fauces is archway or opening from mouth to oropharynx
• Uvula is conical-shaped process suspended from midpoint of arch
Term
• Tongue
Definition
- floor of mouth
– Skeletal muscle components covered by mucus membrane
Term
• Intrinsic muscles
Definition
origin/insertion in tongue; alter shape and size of tongue for speech and swallowing
Term
• Extrinsic muscles
Definition
insert on tongue, originate on another structure; genioglossus - protrudes tongue; hyoglossus - depresses tongue
Term
– Divisions of tongue
Definition
blunt root; tip; central body
Term
– Papillae
Definition
sides and upper surface (dorsum) of tongue - circumvallate, fungiform, and filiform
Term
– Taste buds
Definition
located on sides of circumvallate and fungiform papillae
Term
– Foramen cecum
Definition
median pit on dorsum of tongue
Term
– Lingual frenulum
Definition
midline fold of mucus membrane on undersurface of tongue; ankyloglossia (tongue-tied) - congenital condition caused by short frenulum; restricts tongue movements
Term
Plica fimbriata
Definition
folds on either side of lingual frenulum
Term
• Parotid glands
Definition
largest; secrete watery serous liquid containing amylase
Term
• Submandibular glands
Definition
compound gland; contain both serous (enzyme) and mucus-producing elements
Term
• Sublingual glands
Definition
produce only mucus-type saliva (Does not produce Enzymes)
All are exocrine gland (Run from the cavity to the mouth)
Term
• Teeth
Definition
• Organs of mastication designed to cut, tear, and grind ingested food
Term
– Crown
Definition
exposed portion of tooth
Term
– Neck
Definition
narrow portion surrounded by gums
Term
– Root
Definition
portion that fits into socket of alveolar process
Term
– Enamel
Definition
hardest tissue in body; covers crown
Term
– Dentin
Definition
softer; makes up greatest portion of tooth
Term
– Cementum
Definition
covers neck and root
Term
• Pulp cavity
Definition
hollow cavity within dentin containing connective tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels, and sensory nerves
Term
– Dental caries (tooth decay)
Definition
disease of enamel, dentin, and cementum; results in demineralization and destruction of tissue with cavity formation
Term
– Periodontitis
Definition
inflammatory disease of gums (gingivae) and periodontal membrane
Term
• Pharynx
Definition
• Deglutition involves passage of rounded mass of food (bolus) from mouth to stomach
• Serves both respiratory and digestive systems
• After food bolus has passed through pharynx, it enters digestive tube proper
Term
• Esophagus
Definition
• Extends from pharynx to stomach piercing the diaphragm
• Flattened, collapsible tube
Term
– Fundus
Definition
portion above esophageal opening
Term
– Body
Definition
central portion
Term
– Pylorus
Definition
constricted lower portion
Term
– Cardia
Definition
portion nearest esophagus
Term
– Cardiac (Sphincter muscle)
Definition
guards opening of esophagus into stomach
Term
– Pyloric
Definition
guards opening of pylorus into duodenum
Term
– Parietal cells
Definition
secrete HCl and intrinsic factor (needed for absorption of B12 for rbc production)
Term
– Zymogenic (chief) cells
Definition
secrete pepsinogen
Term
– Enteroendocrine cells
Definition
secrete stomach gastrin (hormone stimulating release of HCl and pepsinogen)
Term
• Divisions of small intestines
Definition
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Term
• Ileocecal sphincter
Definition
between ileum and cecum of large intestine
Term
• Villi
Definition
– Contain capillaries and lacteals
– Villi and microvilli (brush border) increase surface area for digestion and absorption
Term
• Cecum
Definition
blind pouch at beginning of large intestine; contains twisted, coiled tube, vermiform appendix
Term
• Rectum
Definition
last of GI tract; terminates in anal canal; opening to exterior is anus
Term
• Liver
Definition
– Divided into right and left lobes; several subdivisions
– Lobes divided into lobules by blood vessels and fibrous partitions
– Lobules composed of plates of hepatic cells radiating from central vein
– Portal & hepatic artery blood flows through sinusoids to central vein
– Bile collects in tiny ducts
Term
Liver Function
Definition
– Carbohydrate metabolism - maintains normal blood glucose level
– Fat metabolism - stores; beta oxidation; cholesterol breakdown
– Protein metabolism - deamination; urea formation; synthesis of plasma proteins
– Removal of drugs and hormones
– Phagocytosis - destruction of rbc
– Activation of vitamin D
– Storage - vitamins, glycogen
– Synthesis of bile salts - necessary for fat digestion
– Excretion of bile
Term
Liver and Gall bladder
Definition
• Common bile duct formed by union of cystic (gall bladder) and hepatic (liver) ducts and opens into duodenum
Term
• Gall bladder
Definition
– Sac of smooth muscle with mucus lining arranged in rugae
– Stores bile for later use
Term
• Pancreas
Definition
– Divided into lobes and lobules
– Pancreatic cells pour secretion into duct that runs length of gland and empties into duodenum; may be accessory duct
– Islets of Langerhans - clusters of cells, not connected with ducts; lie between pancreatic cells
Term
• Pancreas Functions
Definition
– Acinar units (98% of cells) - secrete pancreatic juice
– Beta cells of islets of Langerhans secrete insulin
– Alpha cells secrete glucagon
Term
Digestion
Definition
all changes food undergoes in alimentary canal
Term
• Purpose of Digestion
Definition
conversion of foods into chemical and physical forms that can be absorbed and metabolized
Term
• Chemical digestion
Definition
- involves enzymes
Term
• Saliva
Definition
secretion is reflex initiated by stimulation of taste buds, other receptors in mouth and esophagus, olfactory receptors, and visual receptors
Term
• Gastric secretion
Definition
– Controlled reflexly by same stimuli that initiate salivary secretion
– Controlled chemically by gastrin (hormone) released by pyloric mucosa in presence of partially digested proteins
– Enterogastrone (hormone) and gastric inhibiting peptide (GIP) have inhibitory effect on gastric secretion
Term
• Pancreatic secretion
Definition
– Regulated by both nervous and hormonal mechanisms
Term
– Small intestine
Definition
secretes secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) which stimulate pancreas
Term
• Secretin
Definition
pancreatic juice rich in sodium bicarbonate
Term
• CCK
Definition
juice rich in digestive enzymes
Term
– Enterokinase
Definition
activates trypsinogen
Term
• Bile Secretion
Definition
controlled chemically by secretin
Term
Bile – Ejection into duodenum
Definition
high fat concentrations in chyme causes intestinal mucosal release of CCK which relaxes muscles of gall bladder
Term
• Intestinal secretion
Definition
– Local reflexes in response to presence of chyme
– Secretin and CCK stimulate production
Term
• Absorption
Definition
- passage of substances through intestinal mucosa into blood or lymph
• Active transport and diffusion are involved
Term
• Generalizations about metabolism (2)
Definition
– Catabolism and Anabolism
Term
– Catabolism
Definition
breaks food molecules into smaller molecules releasing energy
Term
– Anabolism
Definition
builds food molecules into larger molecules; uses energy
Term
– Chemical energy transferred to
Definition
high-energy bonds of ATP (phosphorylation)
Term
– Breaking of high-energy bonds of ATP yields
Definition
energy used for cellular work
Term
– Oxidation
Definition
removal of electrons or hydrogen ions from a molecule; results in decrease in energy content
Term
– Reduction
Definition
gain of electrons or hydrogen ions to a molecule; increase in energy content
Term
– Oxidation
Definition
reduction reactions always coupled in cell
Term
– Two common carriers of hydrogen
Definition
NAD+ and FAD
Term
• Glucose transport through
Definition
cell membranes and phosphorylation
Term
– Insulin promotes
Definition
transport through cell membranes
Term
– Glucose phosphorylation
Definition
conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate catalyzed by enzyme glucokinase; insulin increases activity of glucokinase so promotes glucose phosphorylation
Term
produced after respiration
Definition
Carbon Dioxide, Water, and ATP
Term
Glucose helps
Definition
move insulin into the cell
Term
– Anaerobic reactions
Definition
occur without oxygen) that convert one glucose molecule to 2 pyruvic acid molecules; yields 2 molecules ATP (less than 5% of ATP produced)
(Split the 6 Carbon into two groups of the pyruvic, having 3 and 3 for the carbon)
Term
• Krebs or TCA cycle
Definition
– Series of reactions that convert pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide (decarboxylation) and remove hydrogen atoms to NAD and FAD
– Takes place in mitochondria and requires oxygen
Term
• Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
Definition
– Hydrogen atoms removed during TCA cycle enter chain of carrier molecules (electron transport system)
– As electrons move down electron transport system, they release small bursts of energy used for oxidative phosphorylation (joining phosphate to ADP to form ATP)
Term
• Electron transport
Definition
– For every NADH entering electron transport 3 ATP’s produced; for every FAD, 2 ATP
Term
– Depends on cells receiving adequate oxygen supply since electrons and hydrogen ions
Definition
combine with oxygen to form water
Term
– If oxygen not available
Definition
electron transport and ATP formation cease
Term
– Occurs in mitochrondria
Definition
(oxygens are used to carry hydrogen ions-therefor we are unable to produce ATP!
Term
• Glucose anabolism
Occur, reaction, Co2, H2 (removed hydrogen), ATP
[This is a chart-it may not make sense. lol sorry]
Definition
Cytoplasm, Glycolyis (Glucose), 0, 2 NADH, 2
Mitochondria ,Krebs circle(2 Pyrubic acids, 2 Carbon), 2, 2 NADH, 0 (If we don’t have oxygen, the pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid-2 ATP)
Mitochondria , Acetyl(CO2), 4, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2, 2
Mitochondria, Electron Transport (NADH[NAD+H2+3 ATP] and FADH2[FAD+H2+2 ATP]=Water), 0, 0, 30 ATP and FAD-4=38ATP overall
Term
• Glycogenolysis (Catabolic Reaction)
Definition
– In liver cells - when blood glucose level decreases below midpoint of normal, enzyme increases conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose
– In muscle cells - glycogen changed back to glucose-1-phosphate
Term
• Glycogenesis
Definition
conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage; occurs in muscle cells and liver cells when blood glucose level exceeds 120-140 mg/deciliter [New Formation of Glycogenesis]
Term
• Gluconeogenesis
Definition
converts protein or fat compounds into glucose; growth hormone, ACTH, and glucocorticoids have stimulating effect on rate of gluconeogenesis
Term
– Insulin
Definition
accelerates glucose utilization by cells - enhances glucose transport through membranes and glucose phosphorylation
Term
– Thyrotropin
Definition
stimulates thyroid gland to increase secretion of thyroxin which accelerates catabolism(aka, glucose catalyzation)
Term
– Glucagon
Definition
increases glycogenolysis (opposite of increasing blood glucose level)
Term
– Epinephrine
Definition
- increases phosphorylase activity in both liver and muscle cells (removes phosphate so more glucose is available
Term
– ACTH
Definition
stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids which stimulate gluconeogenesis
Term
– Growth hormone
Definition
decreases fat deposition, increases fat mobilization and catabolism
Term
– Lipogenesis
Definition
synthesis of lipids from glucose or amino acids
Term
• Fat mobilization
Definition
– Release of fats from adipose tissue cells, followed by their catabolism
– Occurs when blood contains less glucose than normal or less insulin than normal
– If excessive leads to ketosis
Term
• Anabolism (protein synthesis)
Definition
primary importance because proteins used for enzymes, hormones, antibodies, blood proteins, and structural proteins
Term
– Deamination of amino acid molecule to form
Definition
ammonia and keto acid; mainly in liver cells
Term
• Basal metabolic rate
Definition
amount of heat produced (energy expended) in waking state when body at complete rest, 12-18 hours after last meal, in comfortably warm environment
Term
– Indirect calorimetry
Definition
- based on fact that definite amount of heat is produced for each liter of oxygen consumed
Term
• Metabolic rates
• Factors influencing
Definition
– Size
– Gender
– Age
– Abnormal functioning of certain endocrines
– Fever
– Certain drugs
– Other factors such as pregnancy and emotions
Term
Atom
Definition
smallest unit of an element
Term
Nucleus
Definition
made of protons and neutrons
Term
Ionic reactions
Definition
complete giving up or taking on of an electron; when loses or gains electron becomes a charged atom or ion; ions in solution known as electrolytes; unlike charges attract and attraction called ionic bond
Term
Covalent reaction
Definition
sharing of electron pairs; if one pair of electrons is shared, known as single bond; two pairs shared a double bond; and three pairs shared a triple bond
Term
Passive transport
Definition
movement from region of greater concentration to lesser concentration
Term
Diffusion
Definition
movement of particles from region of greater conc. to region of lesser conc. until equally distributed
Term
Facilitated diffusion
Definition
diffusion mediated by carriers (specific proteins) in cell membrane; occurs faster than diffusion and depends on
Term
Osmosis
Definition
movement of water molecules through selectively permeable membrane from area of higher water conc. to an area of lower water conc.
Term
Hypotonic solution
Definition
has lower conc. of solutes thus higher conc. of water; rbc undergo hemolysis
Term
Hypertonic solution
Definition
has higher conc. of solutes and lower conc. of water than normal; rbc under crenation (>.09NaCl) [Crenation-shrivels up]
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
Protein synthesis
Composition
Tiny granules of rRNA and protein
Function
Protein synthesis
Term
Endoplasmic reticulum
Definition
- network of canals and sacs extending through cytoplasm
Term
Smooth ER
Definition
site of fatty acid, phospholipid, and steroid synthesis and detoxifies some chemicals
Term
Rough ER
Definition
- ribosomes attached synthesize proteins for export
Term
Mitosis
Definition
Process of cell division; chromosome number constant
Term
Prophase
Definition
Chromosomes become visible as double-stranded structure
Centrioles migrate to poles and spindle fibers appear
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear
Term
Metaphase
Definition
chromosomes line up on equatorial plate
Term
Anaphase
Definition
- centromeres separate and chromatids move to opposite poles
Term
Telophase
Definition
Chromosomes uncoil and resemble chromatin material
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-form
Spindle fibers disappear
Cytokinesis occurs - cytoplasm divides by cleavage furrow
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
relative constancy of the internal environment, notably with respect to its chemical composition, osmotic pressure, hydrogen ion concentration, and temperature
Term
Epithelial Tissue
Definition
location: covers and lines various parts of the body

functions: specializes in absorptions, secretion, and providing protective barriers
Term
Simple Epithelium
Definition
one layer of cells
Term
Stratified
Definition
more than one layer of cells
Term
Pseudostratified
Definition
appears stratified but consists of only one layer of cells, some of which do not extend to the surface of tissue; found in treachea
Term
Squamous
Definition
flat
Term
Cuboidal
Definition
square
Term
Columnar
Definition
rectrangle
Term
Transitional
Definition
surface cells vary from sqamous to cuboidal depending on degree of stretching
Term
Epithelial Cells
Definition
usually arranged to form continuous sheets with very little intercellular material; sheets composed surface layer of skin and of mucous and serous membranes; basement membrane, an adhesive, permeable material, attaches epithelial layer to underlying layer of connective tissue
Term
Epithelial Tissue
Definition
Definition 17

no blood vessels in epithelial tissue; oxygen and food diffuse form capillaries in connective tissue beneath epithelium; plasma membranes of adjacent epithelial cells modified at interval so as to hold cells together; undergo division
Term
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Definition
single layer of flat cells

location: alveoli of lungs, lining of blood vessels, surface layer of serous membranes (pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum), capilaries, and kidneys

function: diffusion and filtration
Term
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Definition
several layers of flat cells

location: forms surfaces exposed to wear and tear such as surface of skin and of mucous membrane lining the mouth, esophagus, and vagina

function: protection
Term
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Definition
single layer of columnar and goblet-shaped cells, and in some places. ciliated cells

location: composes surface of mucosa lining stomach, intestine, uterus, uterine tubes, and parts of respiratory tract

functions: absorption, secretion, and transport of mucus (stuff will move through it)
Term
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Definition
single layer of square-shaped cells

location: covers surface of ovaries, found in the eye, lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands

functions: secretion and absorption
Term
Connective Tissue
Definition
intercellular material (matrix) predominates and determines physical characteristics; consists of fluid, gel, or solid matrix, with or without fibers

function: connects, supports, transports, and defends

types: collagen, elastic, and reticular
Term
Adipose Tissue
Definition
similar to loose but contains mainly adipocytes (fat cells); cannot see fibers

locations: subcutaneous layer of skin, around heart and kidneys, marrow of long bones, and padding around joints

functions: protection, insulation, support, and reserve food
Term
Epidermis
Definition
outer layer of skin, stratified squamous epithelium

layers: stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale
Term
Stratum Basale
Definition
innermost layer of epidermis; hairless skin contains Merkel's (tactile) disc, Langerhans cells, and melanocytes
Term
Skin Functions
Definition
protection: prevents invasion of dermis and deeper structures by microorganisms, chemicals, and radiation rays/temperature regulation: related to varying amounts of blood in dermis and amount of sweat secreted/ sensation: sensations of heat, cold, pressure, and pain/ vitamin D synthesis: steroid compound in skin converted to vitamin D in presence of sunlight/ (can be reservoir for blood) & (excretion & absorption)
Term
Sebaceous Glands
Definition
attach to follicle; secrete sebum, an oily substance, into follicle
Term
Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
Definition
numerous in most areas of skin - especially palms, soles, forehead, and axillae; involved in maintaining homeostasis of body temperature
Term
Ceruminous Glands
Definition
located in external ear canal; secrete cerumen (ear wax) - provides sticky barrier preventing entrance of foreign bodies
Term
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Definition
unspecialized cells, develop into osteoblasts; found in periosteum, endosteum, perforating and central canals
Term
Osteoblasts
Definition
develop into bone cells but lost ability to divide; secrete collagen and other aorganic components
Term
Osteocytes
Definition
mature bone cells; formed as matrix develops around osteoblasts
Term
Osteoclasts
Definition
bone destroyers
Term
Bone Composition
Definition
organic matrix impregnated with calcium salts and reinforced with collagenous fibers
Term
Skeletal
Definition
striated, voluntary muscle
Term
Smooth
Definition
visceral, involuntary muscle
Term
Cardiac
Definition
striated, involuntary
Term
Sliding filament theory
Definition
Cross bridges of thick filaments (myosin) attach to thin filaments (actin) and pull them toward the middle of the sarcomere
Term
If oxygen is lacking
Definition
Lactic acid builds up
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