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Anatomy and Physiology - Wiley Plus - Unit 3
Chapter 23 - THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
114
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
06/27/2015

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Term
Respiratory System
Definition
- Consists of the nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi, and lungs
Term
Upper Respiratory System
Definition
Includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures
Term
Lower Respiratory System
Definition
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
Term
FN Conducting Zone
Definition
- A series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs-nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles;
- Filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs
Term
FN Respiratory Zone
Definition
- Tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs
- Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli and are the main sites of gas exchange between air and blood.
Term
Nose
Definition
Apecialized organ at entrance of respiratory system that is divided into an external portion and an internal portion called the nasal cavity.
Term
External Nose
Definition
- Portion of the nose visible on the face and consists of a supporting framework of bone and hyaline cartilage covered with muscle and skin and lined by a mucous membrane
Term
Three Functions of Nose
Definition
(1) warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air;
(2) detecting olfactory stimuli; and
(3) modifying speech vibrations as they pass through the large, hollow resonating chambers.
Term
Nasal Cavity
Definition
Large space in the anterior aspect of the skull that lies inferior to the nasal bone and superior to the oral cavity; it is lined with muscle and mucous membrane
Term
Nasal Vestibule
Definition
- Anterior portion of the nasal cavity just inside the nostrils
- Air enters nostrils, it passes first through the vestibule, which is lined by skin containing coarse hairs that filter out large dust particles
Term
Nasal Septum
Definition
Divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides.
Term
Olfactory Epithelium
Definition
- Olfactory receptors, supporting cells, and basal cells lie in the respiratory region
- Cilia but no goblet cells
Term
Pharynx
Definition
- Wall is composed of skeletal muscles and is lined with a mucous membrane
- FN: a passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils
Term
Divisions of Pharynx
Definition
(1) nasopharynx
(2) oropharynx
(3) laryngopharynx
Term
Soft Pqalate
Definition
- Forms posterior portion of roof of the mouth
- Arch-shaped muscular partition b/t the nasopharynx and oropharynx that is lined by mucous membrane
Term
Nasopharynx
Definition
- Receives air from nasal cavity along with packages of dust-laden mucus
- Exchanges small amounts of air with auditory tubes to equalize air pressure between pharynx and middle ear
Term
Oropharynx
Definition
Common passageway for air, food, and drink
Term
Fauces
Definition
Opening from the mouth
Term
Palatine and Lingual Tonsils
Definition
Found in the oropharynx
Term
Laryngopharynx
Definition
Laryngopharynx is both a respiratory and a digestive pathway
Term
Larynx
Definition
- Arytenoid cartilages
- Influence changes in position and tension of the vocal folds
Term
Thyroid Cartilage (Adam’s apple)
Definition
- Two fused plates of hyaline cartilage
Term
Epiglottis
Definition
- Elevation of larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over the glottis, closing it off.
Term
Cricoid Cartilage
Definition
- Ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of larynx
Term
Arytenoid Cartilages
Definition
- Triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilage located at posterior, superior border of the cricoid cartilage.
- Form synovial joints with the cricoid cartilage and have a wide range of mobility.
Term
Ventricular Folds (false vocal cords)
Definition
- Superior pair
- Do not function in voice production
- FN in holding the breath against pressure in the thoracic cavity
- Lift a heavy object.
Term
Vocal Folds (true vocal cords)
Definition
- Vocal folds are the principal structures of voice produc- tion
Term
Trachea
Definition
(1) mucosa
(2) submucosa
(3) hyaline cartilage
(4) adventitia (composed of areolar connective tissue).
Term
C-shape
Definition
- Horizontal rings of hyaline cartilage resemble the letter C
- Connected together by dense connective tissue
- Provide a semirigid support to maintain patency so that the tracheal wall does not collapse inward (especially during inhalation) and obstruct the air passageway.
Term
Bronchi
Definition
- Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Term
Terminal Bronchioles
Definition
Term
Bronchial Tree
Definition
Extensive branching from the trachea through the terminal bronchioles
Term
Pleural Membrane
Definition
Double-layered serous membrane
Term
Parietal Pleura
Definition
Lines the wall of the thoracic cavity the deep layer
Term
Visceral Pleura
Definition
- Contains a small amount of lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes
- Reduces friction b/t membranes, allowing them to slide easily over one another during breathing.
Term
Base
Definition
- Broad inferior portion of the lung
- Fits over convex area of diaphragm
Term
Costal Surface
Definition
Surface of lung lying against the ribs
Term
Mediastinal (medial) Surface
Definition
- Contains region, the hilum through which bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and exit
Term
Cardiac Notch
Definition
Apex of the heart lies in cardiac notch
Term
Lobes, Fissures, and Lobules
Definition
right lung, the superior part of the oblique fissure separates the superior lobe from the inferior lobe; the inferior part of the oblique fissure separates the inferior lobe from the middle lobe, which is bordered superiorly by the hori- zontal fissure.
Term
Bronchopulmonary Segment
Definition
Segment of lung tissue that each tertiary bronchus supplies
Term
Lobules
Definition
- w/in
- contains a lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a venule, and a branch from a terminal bronchiole
Term
Respiratory Bronchioles
Definition
Terminal bronchioles subdivide into microscopic branches
Term
Alveolar Ducts
Definition
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Term
Alveoli
Definition
Cup-shaped outpouching lined by simple squamous epithelium and supported by a thin elastic basement membrane;
Term
Alveolar Sac
Definition
Consists of two or more alveoli that share a common opening
Term
Type I Alveolar Cells
Definition
- More numerous
- Nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall.
- Main sites of gas exchange
Term
Type II alveolar cells
Definition
- Fewer in number
- Free surfaces containing microvilli, secrete alveolar fluid, which keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist
Term
Surfactant
Definition
- Complex mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins
- Lowers surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces tendency of alveoli to collapse and thus maintains their patency (described later).
Term
Alveolar Macrophages (dust cells)
Definition
Remove fine dust particles and other debris from the alveolar spaces
Term
Respiratory Membrane.
Definition
Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the air spaces in the lungs and blood takes place by diffusion across alveolar and capillary walls,
Term
Blood Supply to the Lungs
Definition
- Receive blood via two sets of arteries: pulmonary arteries and bronchial arteries
- Pulmonary arteries are only arteries in body that carry deoxygenated blood
- Return of the oxygenated blood to the heart occurs by way of the four pulmonary veins
- Bronchial arteries, which branch from the aorta, deliver oxygenated blood to the lungs.
Term
Pulmonary Ventilation
Definition
Inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs.
Term
External (pulmonary) Respiration
Definition
Exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane. In this process, pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses CO2
Term
Internal (tissue) Respiration
Definition
- Exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells.
- Blood loses O2 and gains CO2. Within cells, the metabolic reac- tions that consume O2 and give off CO2 during the production of ATP are termed cellular respiration
Term
Inhalation
Definition
- Before each inhalation, the air pressure inside the lungs is equal to the air pressure of the atmosphere, which at sea level is about 760 millime- ters of mercury (mmHg), or 1 atmosphere (atm)
- For air to flow into the lungs, the pressure inside the alveoli must become lower than the atmospheric pressure. This condition is achieved by increasing the size of the lungs.
Term
Boyle’s law
Definition
- Inverse relationship between volume and pressure
- Ift size of a closed container is increased, the pressure of the gas inside the container decreases, and that if the size of the container is decreased, then the pressure inside it increases.
Term
Intrapleural (intrathoracic) pressure
Definition
- Pressure b/t the two pleural layers in the pleural cavity
- Always subatmospheric (lower than atmospheric pressure)
Term
Alveolar (intrapulmonic) pressure
Definition
As the volume of the lungs increases in this way, the pressure inside the lungs,
Term
Exhalation
Definition
- Du to a pressure gradient, but in this case the gradient is in the opposite direction: pressure in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the atmosphere
- (1) the recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inhalation and (
2) the inward pull of surface tension due to the film of alveolar fluid
- Exhalation becomes active only during forceful breathing,
- abdominals and internal intercostals (see Figure 23.13a)—contract, which increases pressure in the abdominal region and thorax
Term
Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
Definition
Three factors affect the rate of airflow and the ease of pulmonary ventilation: surface tension of the alveolar fluid, compliance of the lungs, and airway resistance.
Term
Surface tension
Definition
Arises at all air–water interfaces because the polar water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other than they are to gas molecules in the air.
- causes the alveoli to assume the smallest possible diameter.
- During breathing, surface tension must be overcome to expand the lungs during each inhalation.
- Accounts for two-thirds of lung elastic recoil, which decreases the size of alveoli during exhalation.
Term
Airway Resistance
Definition
Airways, especially the bronchioles, offer some resistance to the normal flow of air into and out of the lungs.
Term
eupnea
Definition
can consist of shallow, deep, or combined shallow and deep breath- ing.
Term
costal breathing
Definition
- pattern of shallow (chest) breathing
- consists of an upward and outward movement of the chest due to contraction of the external intercostal muscles.
Term
diaphragmatic breathing
Definition
- pattern of deep (abdominal) breathing
- consists of the outward movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent of the diaphragm
Term
tidal volume (VT
Definition
volume of one breath
70%
Term
minute ventilation (MV)
Definition
total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute
Term
spirometer
Definition
apparatus commonly used to measure the volume of air exchanged during breathing and the respiratory rate
Term
anatomic (respiratory) dead space
Definition
conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange
Term
alveolar ventilation rate
Definition
volume of air per minute that actually reaches the respiratory zone.
Term
inspiratory reserve volume
Definition
- additional inhaled air
- Even more air can be inhaled if inhalation follows forced exhalation
Term
expiratory reserve volume
Definition
the volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in 1 second with maximal ef- fort following a maximal inhalation.
Term
residual volume
Definition
Even after the expiratory reserve volume is exhaled, consider- able air remains in the lungs because the subatmospheric in- trapleural pressure keeps the alveoli slightly inflated, and some air also remains in the noncollapsible airways.
Term
Inspiratory capacity
Definition
the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume
Term
Functional residual capacity
Definition
the sum of residual volume and expi- ratory reserve volume
Term
Vital capacity
Definition
sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expira- tory reserve volume
Term
total lung capacity
Definition
sum of vital capacity and residual volume
Term
Dalton’s law
Definition
- each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present.
- total pressure of the mixture is calculated simply by adding all the partial pressures.
- We can determine the partial pressure exerted by each compo- nent in the mixture by multiplying the percentage of the gas in the mixture by the total pressure of the mixture.
Term
Partial Pressure
Definition
- Partial pressures determine the movement of O2 and CO2 between the atmosphere and lungs, between the lungs and blood, and between the blood and body cells
- The greater the difference in partial pressure, the faster the rate of diffusion
Term
Henry’s law
Definition
- the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility.
- the ability of a gas to stay in solution is greater when its partial pressure is higher and when it has a high solubility in water.
- higher the partial pressure of a gas over a liquid and the higher the solubility, the more gas will stay in solution.
- comparison to oxygen, much more CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma because the solubility of CO2 is 24 times greater than that of O2. Even though the air we breathe contains mostly N2, this gas has no known effect on bodily functions, and at sea level pressure very little of it dissolves in blood plasma because its solubility is very low
Term
External Respiration or Pulmonary Gas Exchange
Definition
the diffusion of O2 from air in the alveoli of the lungs to blood in pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction
- As blood flows through the pulmonary capillaries, it picks up O2 from alve- olar air and unloads CO2 into alveolar air
- each gas diffuses in- dependently from the area where its partial pressure is higher to the area where its partial pressure is lower.
Term
Internal respiration or systemic gas exchange
Definition
- The exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic capillaries and tissue cells
- Unlike external respira- tion, which occurs only in the lungs, internal respiration occurs in tissues throughout the body.
Term
Oxygen Transport
Definition
- Oxygen does not dissolve easily in water, so only about 1.5% of inhaled O2 is dissolved in blood plasma
-
Term
oxyhemoglobin
Definition
Oxygen and hemoglobin bind in an easily reversible reaction
Term
The Relationship between Hemoglobin and Oxygen Partial Pressure
Definition
most important factor that determines how much O2 binds to hemoglobin is the PO2; the higher the PO2, the more O2 combines with Hb
- expresses the average saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen
- the greater the PO2, the more O2 will bind to hemoglobin until all the available hemoglobin molecules are saturated.
- only 25% of the available O2 unloads from hemoglobin and is used by tissue cells under resting conditions.
- blood picks up a nearly full load of O2 from the lungs even when the PO2 of alveolar air is as low as 60 mmHg.
Term
Other Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hemoglobin for
Oxygen
Definition
- Acidity (pH
- Partial pressure of carbon dioxid
- Temperature
- BPG
Term
Carbon Dioxide Transport
Definition
gaseous CO2, which is transported in the blood in three main forms
1. Dissolved CO2
2. Carbamino compounds
3. Bicarbonate ions.
Term
2. Carbaminohemoglobin (Hb—CO )
Definition
main CO2 binding sites are the terminal amino acids in the two alpha and two beta globin chains. Hemoglobin that has bound CO2
Term
3. Bicarbonate ions.
Definition
- greatest percentage of CO2—about 70%—is transported in blood plasma
- reacts with water in the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into Hﰈ and HCO3ﰊ
Term
Summary of Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues
Definition
Pg 950
Term
Respiratory Center
Definition
respiratory muscles contract as a result of nerve impulses transmitted to them from centers in the brain and relax in the absence of nerve impulses
- neurons located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata and pons of the brain
Term
Respiratory Center
Definition
- widely dispersed group of neurons
- divided into three areas on the basis of their functions: (1) the medullary rhythmicity area in the medulla oblongata; (2) the pneumotaxic area in the pons; and (3) the apneustic area, also in the pons
Term
Medullary Rhythmicity Area
Definition
- control the basic rhythm of respiration
- inspiratory and expiratory areas within the medullary rhythmicity are
Term
inspiratory area
Definition
- establish the basic rhythm of breath- ing
- impulses prop- agate to the external intercostal muscles via intercostal nerves and to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves.
- muscles relax allowing passive elastic recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall.
Term
expiratory area
Definition
- inactive during quiet breathing
- during forceful breathing nerve impulses from the inspiratory area activate the expiratory area
Term
Pneumotaxic Area
Definition
- help coordinate the transition between inhalation and exhalation
- transmits inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory area.
- turn off the inspiratory area before the lungs become too full of air.
- shorten the duration of inhalation
- more active, breathing rate is more rapid
Term
Apneustic Area
Definition
- coordinates the transition between inhalation and exhalation
- sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area that activate it and prolong inhalation.
- long, deep inhalation
- pneumotaxic area is active, it overrides signals from the ap- neustic area.
Term
Regulation of the Respiratory Center
Definition
can be modified in response to inputs from other brain regions, receptors in the peripheral nervous system, and other factors.
Term
Cortical Influences on Respiration
Definition
- Can voluntarily alter our pattern of breathing
- Voluntary control is protective because it enables us to prevent water or irritating gases from entering the lungs
- limited by the buildup of CO2 and Hﰈ in the body
- PCO2 and Hﰈ concentrations increase to a certain level, the inspiratory area is strongly stimulated, nerve impulses are sent along the phrenic and intercostal nerves to inspiratory muscles, and breathing resumes, whether the person wants it to or not
Term
Chemoreceptor Regulation of Respiration
Definition
chemical stimuli modulate how quickly and how deeply we breathe.
Term
Central chemoreceptors
Definition
located in or near the medulla oblongata
-Ppart of peripheral nervous system and are sensitive to changes in PO2, Hﰈ, and PCO2 in the blood
Term
Aortic bodies
Definition
clusters of chemoreceptors located in the wall of the arch of the aorta
Term
carotid bodies
Definition
- oval nodules in the wall of the left and right common carotid arteries
-
Term
hypercapnia
Definition
- slight increase in PCO2
- As the breathing rate decreases or breathing ceases altogether, PO2 falls lower and lower, establish- ing a positive feedback cycle with a possibly fatal result.
Term
hyperventilation
Definition
- Rapid and deep breathing
- Allows the inhalation of more O2 and exhalation of more CO2 until PCO2 and Hﰈ are low- ered to normal.
Term
hypocapnia
Definition
- arterial PCO2 is lower than 40 mmHg—
- central and peripheral chemore- ceptors are not stimulated, and stimulatory impulses are not sent to the inspiratory area.
Term
Proprioceptor Stimulation of Respiration
Definition
- rate and depth of breathing increase, even before changes in PO2, PCO2, or Hﰈ level occur
- Nerve impulses from the proprioceptors stimulate the inspiratory area of the medulla oblongata.
Term
inflation (Hering–Breuer) reflex
Definition
mainly a protective mechanism for pre- venting excessive inflation of the lungs rather than a key compo- nent in the normal regulation of respiration.
Term
Other Influences on Respiratio
Definition
- Limbic system stimulation.
- Temperature
- Pain
- Stretching the anal sphincter muscle
- Irritation of airways
- Blood pressure
Term
Asthma
Definition
- disorder characterized by chronic air- way inflammation, airway hypersensitivity to a variety of stimuli, and airway obstruction.
- due to smooth muscle spasms in the walls of smaller bronchi and bronchioles, edema of the mucosa of the airways, increased mucus secretion, and/or damage to the epithelium of the airway.
Term
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Definition
- characterized by chronic and recurrent obstruction of airflow, which increases airway resistance
- principal types of COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis
- preventable because its most common cause is cigarette smoking or breathing secondhand smoke
Term
Emphysema
Definition
less surface area for gas exchange, O2 diffusion across the damaged respiratory membrane is reduced. Blood O2 level is some- what lowered, and any mild exercise that raises the O2 requirements of the cells leaves the patient breathless
Term
Chronic Bronchitis
Definition
excessive secretion of bronchial mucus accompanied by a productive cough
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