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Anatomy and Physiology I Test One
N/A
110
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
02/14/2012

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Term
What is homeostasis?
Definition
the ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions
Term
During homeostasis, what is the factor being regulated?
Definition
Variable
Term
A change in the environment is picked up by what?
Definition
Receptor
Term
The stimulus from the receptor is sent to the control center via?
Definition
Afferent pathway
Term
The control center sends information regarding actions to the effector via?
Definition
Efferent pathway
Term
Within a negative feedback system, the variable is changed how?
Definition
In a direction opposite of its initial change

***Thermostat example applies here. Thermostat is set on 70. Temperature rises above 70
so the air conditioning kicks on to bring the temperature back down to its "ideal" temp.
Term
Within a positive feedback loop, the variable is changed how?
Definition
In the same direction as its initial change

***Blood vessel example applies here. A tear in the blood vessel causes platelets to
adhere to the site. The platelets release chemicals, which in turn attract more platelets.
Term
What are the 4 major elements that make up the human body?
Definition
Carbon 18.50%
Nitrogen 3.20%
Oxygen 65%
Hydrogen 9.50%
Term
Every atom is made up of what?
Definition
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Term
In the first two electron shells, how many eletrons does it take to fill each?
Definition
First - 2
Second - 8
Term
Carbon is able to form how many covalent bonds?
Definition
Four
Term
What are the three main types of chemical bonds?
Definition
Ionic, Covalent, and Hydrogen
Term
Ionic
Covalent
Hydrogen
Definition
donate or accept electrons
share electrons
weak electrical attractions
Term
How is the polar molecule of water able to form hydrogen bonds?
Definition
The oxygen of the water molecule holds a mostly negative charge therefore attracting the
postive hydrogens of other water molecules.
Term
When covalent bonds have an unequal sharing of electrons, this results in what?
Definition
A polar molecule
Term
Polar
Nonpolar
Hyrdrophilic
Hydrophobic
Lipophilic
Lipophobic
Definition
unequal sharing of electrons
equal sharing of electrons
doesn't mind being in the presence of water
avoids water
doesn’t mind being in the presence of fats
avoids fats
Term
What is moles per liter?
Definition
Molarity (M)
Term
What is moles per 1000g H20?
Definition
Molality
Term
What are salts?
Definition
Inorganic compounds containing cations other than (H+) and anions other than (OH-)
Term
A salt's ions are called what?
Definition
Electrolytes
Term
What are acids?
Definition
Compounds that release (H+) ions and are below 7 on the pH scale
Term
What are bases?
Definition
Compounds that release (OH-) ions and are above 7 on the pH scale
Term
pH is the measure of what?
Definition
The concentration of (H+) ions
Term
pOH is the measure of what?
Definition
The concentration of (OH-) ions
Term
What are buffers?
Definition
Pairs of molecules, one acidic and one basic, that donate/accept electrons when the pH
equilibrium is disturbed, thus helping to maintain pH
Term
What common structure in the human body is a buffer?
Definition
All amino acids and proteins
Term
What are the four types of organic compounds?
Definition
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids (Fats)
Nucleic Acids
Term
What are carbs major role?
Definition
To supply a source of cellular food
Term
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides**
Definition
simple sugars
double sugars
polymers of simple sugars
**basic form of glycogen
Term
What are the three main types of lipids?
Definition
Triglycerides neutral fats, used for insulation
Phospholipids comprise cell membranes
Steroids cholesterol, Vitamin D, testosterone, estrogen
Term
Which vitamins are fat soluble?
Definition
A,E and K
Term
Which type of lipid has three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule?
Definition
Triglyceride
Term
Which type of lipid has two fatty acid groups and a phosphorous group?
Definition
Phospholipid
Term
Which type of lipid has four interlocking hydro-carbon rings?
Definition
Steroids
Term
What are the building blocks of proteins?
Definition
Amino Acids
Term
Every amino acid is comprised of what two groups?
Definition
Amino Group NH2
Carboxyl Group COOH
Term
Amino acids that are bound together by peptide bonds in a macromolecule are called what?
Definition
Proteins
Term
What are the four types of protein structures?
Definition
Primary sequence of amino acids
Seconday (alpha) helix or (beta) pleated-sheet
Tertiary globular
Quaternary bundle of globular
Term
What important protein in the blood exist in the globular form?
Definition
Hemoglobin
Term
Actin and myosin, which help in the kinetic movement of muscles, are examples of what?
Definition
Fibrous proteins
Term
What important role do enzymes play in reactions?
Definition
They lower the activation energy required for a reaction to proceed rapidly
Term
What are the largest molecules in the body?
Definition
Nucleic Acids
Term
The structural unit of nucleic acids are called what?
Definition
Nucleotides
Term
Each nucleotide is comprised of what?
Definition
Nitrogenic base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
Term
What are the four nitrogenic bases in DNA?
Definition
Cytosine Cytosine always bonds with Guanine
Guanine

Adenine Adenine always bonds with Thymine
Thymine
Term
What is unique about the nucleotides in RNA?
Definition
Thymine is replaced by Uracil
Term
What is ATP?
Definition
Adenosine triphosphate
Term
What results in adenosine monophosphate (AMP)?
Definition
The cleavage of the terminal phosphate bond of ADP
Term
What is adenosine made of?
Definition
Adenine and a Ribose sugar
Term
What is cAMP important for?
Definition
Hormone action
Term
In what organizational structure is the plasma membrane composed?
Definition
Phospholipid Bilayer
Term
Membrane proteins have many functions. What are some of these?
Definition
Transport
Enzymatic activity
Receptors for signal transduction
Intracellular adhesion
Cell-cell recognition
Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
Term
What are the three types of cellular junctions?
Definition
Tight junctions impermeable
Desmosomes anchoring junctions with a network of fibers

Gap junctions allows ions and small molecules to pass
Term
What are the three types of passive transport mechanisms?
Definition
-Simple Diffusion
net movement of molecules across a concentration gradient
-Osmosis
simple diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
-Fascilitated Diffusion
diffused substance is attached to carrier protein/channel movement
Term
How do the lipophobic, polar water molecules diffuse through a membrane?
Definition
Aquaporins, channels in which water move, help the molecules to come through
Term
In order for simple diffusion to take place, what must be characterisitic of the molecules?
Definition
They must be small and lipophilic
Term
What are the three types of tonic solutions?
Definition
Isotonic- same concentration in cells and outside solution
Hypotonic- lower concentration than inside cells
Hypertonic- higher concentration than inside cells
Term
The tonicity of solutions have the ability to change what about the cell?
Definition
Cell volume
Term
If a cell loses H20/volume, what happens?
Definition
There is an increase in the solute concentration and therefore an increase in (Rx) rates
Term
If a cell gains H20/volume, what happens?
Definition
There is a decrease in the solute concentration and therefore a decrease in (Rx) rates
Term
What are the two types of vesicular transport?
Definition
Exocytosis- moving substances out of the cell
Endocytosis- moving large particle substances into the cell
Term
Pieces of the membrane that break off during endocytosis and transport the particles are called?
Definition
Vesicles
Term
When the cell is not under division processes, chromosomes exist as what structure?
Definition
Chromatin
Term
Human have how many pairs of chromosomes?
Definition
23 pairs
Term
The cell cycle consists of what phases?
Definition
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Term
Interphase is sub-divided into what three phases?
Definition
G1, S, G2 phases, respectively (Growth, Synthesis, Growth)
Term
When DNA is replicated, what happens?
Definition
A strand of old DNA is uncoiled, and broken apart. Each separate strand then serves as a template for complimentary DNA synthesis.
Term
What enzyme is the site for DNA synthesis?
Definition
DNA polymerase
Term
The point at which the old strands of DNA are split is called?
Definition
Replication Fork
Term
What is transcription?
Definition
The transfer of information from a DNA's base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of an mRNA molecule
Term
What is translation?
Definition
The nucleic acid base sequence is translated into an amino acid sequence

***In summary, a complimentary molecule of mRNA is created from the template DNA. The mRNA
leaves the nucleus and is modified. Ribozymes cut out the introns and leaves the exons. The
modified mRNA is sent to the ribosome where it is translated into a sequence of amino acids
Term
A triplet of DNA (3 consecutive nucleotides) codes for what?
Definition
Codon of mRNA
Term
A codon of mRNA (3 consecutive mRNA nucleotides) codes for what?
Definition
A particular amino acid
Term
The amino acid is brought to the ribosomal subunit by what?
Definition
tRNA
Term
How many nucleotides can fit in a ribosomal subunit at one time?
Definition
9 nucleotides or 3 codons
Term
Which sequences code for stopping?
Definition
UAA, UAG, UGA
Term
Which sequence codes for starting?
Definition
AUG
Term
How many amino acids exist?
Definition
20 amino acids
Term
How many different combinations of nucleotides are there?
Definition
64 different combinations
Term
What percentage of genes are coding genes?
Definition
1.5%, approximately 23,000 genes
Term
What is the significance of siRNA?
Definition
It can be used to interfere with viral, double-stranded mRNA
Term
Sickle Cell Anemia
Definition
- caused by a a double recessive inheritance, most common in Africans and people of African descent
- sickling cells die an pile up in the capillaries causing blood to become more viscous, in turn imparing circulation
Term
Cystic Fibrosis
Definition
- encodes a protein that involves the transport of chloride, most common in European caucasians
- increased viscosity of bronchial, pancreatic, and other mucous gland secretions
Term
Trisomy 21
Definition
- results in three copies of chromosome 21, can be related to age at conception
- dysmorphic facial features, mental retardation, and commonly associated with congenital heart defects
Term
In normal cells, what genes promote growth? (cancer)
Definition
Protooncogenes
Term
In normal cells, what genes inhibit growth? (cancer)
Definition
Tumor Suppressor Genes
Term
What is a neoplasm?
Definition
An abnormal growth of cells
Term
This "cancerous" growth, or neoplasmic growth, is caused by what four factors?
Definition
Mutagenesis alters balance
Oncogenes causes unregulated growth
Underexpressed TSGs causes unregulated growth
Angiogenesis supplies the growth with blood = energy
Term
What makes malignant tumors different from benign ones?
Definition
Fast mitotic growth
Not encapsulated
Infiltrate surrounding tissues
Can send out satellite cells
Needs angiogenesis

**Benign tumors are encapsulated and do not ordinarily
infiltrate other tissues, often being ignored.
Term
Cancer, which results as an alteration of genes, is technically a genetic disease. However, some of the mutations associated with cancer can be aquired from repreated exposures to carcinogens. What are some of these carcinogens?
Definition
Different Radiations -UV, X-Ray, etc
Environmental Molecules -Tobacco, Alcohol, Asbestos, Vinyl Chloride
Internal Agents -Free Radicals, Steroid Hormones, Viruses, Bacteria
Term
By inheriting what gene are women more likely to develop breast cancer?
Definition
BRAC I, BRAC II
Term
Trying to indentify the genes that cause cancer has become problematic. Why is that?
Definition
Cancer is a multi-genetic complex, and the genes in which are affected vary widely from person to person with the same cancer.
Term
The different types of cancer are named by what?
Definition
General tissue origin
Term
An epithelial cancer would be called what?
Definition
Carcinoma
Term
A glandular cancer would be called what?
Definition
Adenoma
Term
A cancer within the connective or muscle tissues would be called what?
Definition
Sarcoma
Term
A cancer of the blood or lymphatics would be called what?
Definition
Lymphoma
Term
What are some of the major symptoms of cancer?
Definition
Tumor enlargement
Weight loss
Hypersecrection of the affected glands
Organ failure due to overcrowding and malnutrition
Term
What is a tissue
Definition
A group of cells, similar in structure and function
Term
What is the study of tissues?
Definition
Histology
Term
What are the four types of tissues?
Definition
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve
Term
How many days until a zygote starts to differentiate?
Definition
16 days
Term
The process of gastrulation forms what three germ layers?
Definition
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm

***Each germ layer has a predetermined "fate". They are already programmed to be a certain type of cell.
Term
Before differentiation, a zygote's cells are said to be totipotent. What does this mean?
Definition
They have the potential to become any type of cell within the human body
Term
What does the epithelial tissue do?
Definition
Covers and lines the body as well as form glands
Term
Epithelial tissue is asid to be polar, meaning that each side of the tissue works in the opposite direction of the other. What is the name of the open portion of the tissue?
Definition
Apical or Lumenal
Term
What is the name of the attached portion of the tissue?
Definition
Basal or Serosal
Term
What is the function of the basement membrane?
Definition
To act as an intracellular velcro between the epethelium and the connective tissue
Term
Epethelial tissue is avascular but innervated. What does this mean?
Definition
There are no blood vessels present but neurons do connect to it
Term
Stages of Cancer
I
II, III
IV
Definition
o I. Small, localized
o II, III: advanced locally, w/wo nodal involvement
o IV: metastatic, inoperable
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