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Anatomy and Physiology
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159
Anatomy
Post-Graduate
01/26/2010

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Term
Blood Role:
Definition
respiration, nutrition, waste elimination, thermoregulation, immune defense, acid-base balance, water balance, internal communication
Term
Blood:
Definition
connective tissue w/ plasma and formed elements
Term
Formed elements:
Definition
include RBC (erythrocytes),platetelets, and WBC (leukocytes)
Term
Blood properties:
Definition
viscosity of blood and osmolarity (regulates passage of materials into and out of blood)
Term
Plasma:
Definition
complex mixture (92% water) of proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, and gases
Term
Abundant plasma Solute:
Definition
Weight
Term
Abundant nitrogenous Waste:
Definition
Urea
Term
Plasma proteins:
Definition
albumins, globulins, fibrinogen
Term
Plasma nutrients:
Definition
glucose, amino acids, fats, cholesterol, phospholipids, vitamins, minerals
Term
Abundant Electrolytes:
Definition
Sodium
Term
Hemopoiesis:
Definition
Production of formed elements of blood, stimulatory chemicals (hormone)
Term
Hemocytoblasts:
Definition
begins w/ pluripotent stem cells
Term
Erythropoiesis:
Definition
produces erythrocytes @ rate of 2.5 million cells per second. Iron
Term
Proerythroblast:
Definition
Committed cell
Term
Erythropoietin:
Definition
Hormone
Term
Leukopoiesis:
Definition
production of WBC
Term
Platelet production ( thrombopoiesis):
Definition
hemocytoblast; megakaryoblast develops into a huge megakaryocyte which breaks up into platelets.
Term
Erythrocytes (RBCs):
Definition
carry oxygen from lungs to tissues and return carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.
Term
RBC shape:
Definition
dics- shaped w/ exterior glycoprotiens and glycolipids conferring blood type.
Term
RBCs development:
Definition
lose most of organelles and use oxygen that r meant to transmit elsewhere. they carry on anaerobic fermentation indefinitely.
Term
RBC consists:
Definition
1/3 cytoplasm, hemoglobin; which carries most oxygen and carbon dioxide transported by blood.
Term
RBC shape allows:
Definition
rapid diffusion of gases throughout the cells.
Term
Hemoglobin:
Definition
consists globins, conjugated w/ nonprotien heme group that binds oxygen to ferrous ion @ its center.
Term
Globins:
Definition
four protien chains
Term
Carbon dioxide
Definition
transported bound to globin portion of hemoglobin.
Term
RBC count:
Definition
higher in men 4.6-6.2 million _ women 4.2- 5.4 million
Term
Difference between sexes:
Definition
male androgens stimulate RBC production production, women have menstrual cycles, and hematocrit is inversely proportional to body fat, which is usually higher in women.
Term
Erythrocytes:
Definition
circulate for 120 days
Term
Hemolysis:
Definition
spleen traps and destroys old cells. rupture of RBCs, which releases hemoglobin.
Term
Globin Portion of hemoglobin:
Definition
hydrolyzed to amino acids, which are refused. the heme portion has its iron removed and recycled or stored.
Term
Primary polycythemia:
Definition
cancer of myeloid tissue.
Term
Secondary polycythemia
Definition
caused by lung damage, high altitude, or other factors leading to hypoxia (not recieving enough oxygen)
Term
Anemia:
Definition
defenciency of RBCs.
Term
Anemia causes:
Definition
hemorrhage, hemolysis, inadequate erythropoiesis (usually nutritional).
Term
Sickle-cell Anemia and Thalassemia:
Definition
hereditary disorders affecting hemoglobin.
Term
Sickle-cell hemoglobin (HbS):
Definition
caused by recessive allele
Term
Thalassemia:
Definition
among people of Mediterranean descent, and is characterized by defenciency of alpha or beta chain.
Term
ABO Group:
Definition
type A has type A agglutinogens on the surface of its RBCs, and anti-B agglutinins in its plasma. Type B has type B agglutinogens and anti-A agglutinins. Type AB has both agglutinogens but no agglutinins while type O has no agglutinogens but both anti-A and anti-B agglutinins.
Term
Rh Group:
Definition
any Rh agglutinogens is present on RBCs the person is Rh positive, if none are present person is Rh negative.
Term
Leukocytes (WBCs):
Definition
body's immune response
Term
Granulocytes:
Definition
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Term
Neutrophils:
Definition
granules (reddish/violet) contain lysosome, peroxidase, other antimicrobial agents. function in phagocytosis of bacteria and release of antimicrobial agents.
Term
Eosinophils:
Definition
granules that stain orange-pink, phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, allergens, and inflammatory chemicals and they release enzymes to destroy worms.
Term
Basophils:
Definition
granules that stain purple release histamine (a vasodilator), heparin (anticoagulant) thereby increasing blood flow into an area and promoting mobility of other WBCs.
Term
Agranulocytes:
Definition
lymphocytes, monocytes
Term
Lymphocytes:
Definition
secrete antibodies (B cells), destro forgein or cancer cells (T cells), coordinate aactions of other imune cells (helper T cells).
Term
Monocytes:
Definition
largest formed elements, differentiate into macrophages that in turn phagocytize forgein particles and debris and activate other cells of immune system.
Term
Total WBC count:
Definition
usually 5000- 10000
Term
Hogher than average count (leukocytosis):
Definition
indicates an infection, allergy, dehyudration, or emotional disturbance.
Term
More useful count is a differential WBC count:
Definition
identifies the relative abundance of each type of white cell.
Term
High Neutrophil Count:
Definition
indicates a bacterial infection
Term
Numerous eosinophils:
Definition
indicates allergies or parasites.
Term
Extraordinarily High Number of WBCs:
Definition
characteristics of leukemia or cancer of hemopoietic tissues.
Term
Leukopenia:
Definition
count below normal range, seen in lead, mercury, arsenic poisoning such as infectious diseases as AIDS, influenza, measles, and mumps.
Term
Leukopenia presents:
Definition
elevated risk of infection an cancer.
Term
Hemostasis:
Definition
stoppage of bleeding.
Term
3 hemostatic mechanisms:
Definition
vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation.
Term
High neutrophil count:
Definition
indicates bacterial infection
Term
Numerous eosinophils:
Definition
indocate allergies or parasites
Term
Extraordinarily high number of WBCs:
Definition
characteristics of leukemia, or cancer of cancer of the hemopoietic tissues.
Term
Leukopenia:
Definition
count below the normal range, seen in lead, mercury, and arsenic poisoning; such as infectious diseases as AIDS, influenza, measles, and mumps.
Term
Leukopenia presents:
Definition
elevated risk of infection and cancer.
Term
Platelet functions:
Definition
secrete procoagulants or clotting factors; normal count range for platelets range 130,000-400,000.
Term
Platelets:
Definition
secrete groeth factors that stimulate mitosis in fibroblasts, smooth muscle, help maintain linings of blood vessels; secrete vasoconstrictors that cause vascular spasms in broken vesssels.
Term
Platelets dissolve:
Definition
blood clots that have outlasted their usefulness.
Term
Platelets phagocytize and destroy bacteria:
Definition
secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes to inflammed areas.
Term
Vascular spasm:
Definition
most immediate protection against blood loss; prompt constriction of broken vessel is triggered by nervous impluses (pain pathway), by injury to smooth muscle w/ the vessel wall, and by serotonin (vasoconstrictor) from platelets.
Term
Platelet plug formation:
Definition
stop minor bleeding; platelets undergo degranulation as they aggregate, releasing substances that promote hemostasis.
Term
Coagulation:
Definition
most effective method hemostasis, most omplex over 30 chemical reactions.
Term
Objective of Coagulation:
Definition
convert solunle fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin, sticky protien adheres walls of vessel. blood cells and platelets get stuck in net of fibrin stopping blood loss.
Term
Two Reaction Pathways to coagulation:
Definition
extrinsic mechanism, clotting factors released by damaged blood vessel and intrinsic mechanism initiated factors are found in plasma or platelets (clots).
Term
Procoagulants:
Definition
clotting factors; produced in liver, activates the next, in turn activates another, and so on.
Term
Thrombin:
Definition
cuts fibrinogen in fibrin which polymerizes form the web-like matrix of clot.
Term
Completion of coagulation:
Definition
blood clot id dissolved by enzyme plasmin.
Term
Prevention of inappropriate coagulation:
Definition
platelet repulsion (prostacyclin), dilution of thrombin, anticoagulants, such as antithrombin and heparin.
Term
Hemophilia A:
Definition
lack of factor VIII from victoria affecting 1 out of 5000 males 83% of hemophilia cases.
Term
Hemophilia B:
Definition
lack of factor IX 1 out of 30000 males.
Term
Most coagulation disorders:
Definition
form of unwanted blood clot (thrombosis)
Term
Heart + blood vessels:
Definition
cardiovascular system transports blood throughout body
Term
Cardiovascular system teo major divisions:
Definition
pulmonary circuit: serves lungs systemic circuit: supplies blood to remainder of body. right side sends to pulmoary circuit left side sends to systemic circuit.
Term
heart lies:
Definition
center of thoracic cavity in mediastinum
Term
heart weight:
Definition
300g.
Term
Pericardium:
Definition
enclosed double-walled sac for heart.
Term
Parietal pericardium:
Definition
tough, fibrous layer of dense connective tissue w/ thin, smooth, moist serous layer
Term
Serous layer:
Definition
base of heart, forming visceral pericardium covering heart surface.
Term
Pericardial cavity:
Definition
space bwtn perietal and visceral percardia; contains parietal fluid that lubricates membranes and allows heart to beat w/out friction
Term
three layers of heart:
Definition
epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
Term
Epicardium:
Definition
serous membrane overlying thin layer areolar tissue has thick deposits adipose tissue.
Term
Myocardium:
Definition
composed cardiac muscle forms bulk of heart. performs work muscle fibers r bound 2gether by fibrous skeleton.
Term
Muscle fibers:
Definition
provide support for heart, give muscles something to pull against, limits routes which electrical activity can travel through heart.
Term
Endocardium:
Definition
layer endothelium overlying thin layer areolar tissue; forms smooth inner lining of chambers and valves and is continiousw/ endothelium of blood vessels.
Term
Right and left Atria:
Definition
recieve blood flowing to heart, has small ear-like extension called auricle slightly increases its volume
Term
two inferior chambers left and right ventricles:
Definition
pump blood into srteries for distribution elsewhere
Term
Other features of heart:
Definition
atrioventricular sulcus, anterioir and posterior interventricular sulci, interatrial septum, interventricular septum
Term
Valves:
Definition
prevent back flow of blood in heart
Term
Pulmonary valve:
Definition
guards opening from right ventricle to pulmonary trunk
Term
Aortic valve:
Definition
gueards opening from left ventricle to aorta.
Term
Semilunar valves:
Definition
moonlike shape their 3 cusps
Term
Atrioventricular (AV) valve:
Definition
guards opening btwn each atrium and ventricle
Term
Tricupsid valve:
Definition
right AV valve
Term
Bicupsid valve mitral valve:
Definition
left valve
Term
String-like chordae tendineae:
Definition
attach valve cusps to papillary muscles
Term
Opening and closing heart valves:
Definition
result of pressure gradients from one side of cusps to other
Term
Blood flow through myocardium:
Definition
5% output its own needs, myocardium has extensive ot coronary arteries to ensure adequate blood supply to itself.
Term
Arterial supply:
Definition
first branches off aorta are right and left coronary arteries
Term
Lft coronary artery:
Definition
supplies blood to left side of heart and divides anterior interventricular and circumflex arteries.
Term
Right coronary artery:
Definition
supplies blood to right side of heart and divides marginal and posterior interventricular arteries
Term
Myocardial infarction:
Definition
any coronary arteries become occluded w/plaque, portion of heart muscle dies from lack of blood flow.
Term
Venous drainage:
Definition
route by which blood leaves an organ, blood leaving capillaries collects small veins merge form larger veins. lead great cardiac veins drain anterior aspect of heart, middle cardiac vein collects blood posterior aspect of heart.
Term
Great and middle cardiac veins:
Definition
drain into cardiac sinus that empties into right atrium
Term
Aterial blood flow:
Definition
greater wen ventricles conracting than it is wen they relax
Term
Coronary arteries:
Definition
flow is greater wen ventricles relax
Term
4 chambered heart:
Definition
complete seperation pulmonary and systemic circuits achieved in birds,mammals,few reptiles.
Term
Cardiac muscle cells (myocytes):
Definition
differ from skeletal muscles they r short, thick, braching cells that have one nucleus.
Term
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR):
Definition
less developed lacks terminal cisternae but T tubules are larger than skeletal muscle
Term
ach myocyte:
Definition
surrounded by connective tissue endo,mysium which allows access to blood capillaries
Term
Intercalated disks:
Definition
three distinct features: plasma membranes of adjacent cells display interdigitating folds; cells tightly joined by desmosomes; gap junctions btwn cells.
Term
Cardiac muscle:
Definition
more vulnerable to oxygen deficiency than it is to lack of fuel
Term
Heart muscle is not prone to fatigue:
Definition
it makes lil use of anaerobic fermentation or oxygen debt mechanism
Term
Vertebrate hearts are myogenic:
Definition
pacemaker is in heart itself autonomic nervous system can only modify heart rate
Term
Cardiac myocytes:
Definition
autorhythmic make up cardiac conduction system
Term
cardiac conduction system controls:
Definition
route and timing of electrical conduction four chambers must contract coordinated fashion.
Term
Heart block:
Definition
failure part of cardiac conduction system to transmit signals
Term
Sinus rythm:
Definition
normal heartbeak generated by SA node
Term
Ectopic foci:
Definition
regions other than SA node fire spontaneously
Term
Arrhythmia:
Definition
abnormal heart-rate
Term
Autorhythmic cells of SA node:
Definition
Resiting potential taht starts at -60V and then drifts upward
Term
Pacemaker potential:
Definition
-40mV fast calcium channels open and calcium rushes in
Term
Potassium channels open:
Definition
K rushes out of cell cytosol becomes negative creating falling phase action potential
Term
Repolarization is complete:
Definition
k channels close again pacemaker potential begins anew.
Term
Contractile myocyte:
Definition
exhibit potentials differ than neurons or skeletal muscle. they have stable RMP depolarze only wen stimulated
Term
polarization of myocyte:
Definition
sparse SR release of supplemantal calcium ions from ECF
Term
Cardiac muscle:
Definition
absolute refractory period 250msec compared w/1-2 msec skeletal muscle
Term
Electrocardiograph:
Definition
amplifies electrical currents in heart detected by recording electrodes on skin produces ECG
Term
P wave:
Definition
depolarization of atria
Term
QRS wave:
Definition
marks ventricular depolarization atrial repolarization also occurs at same time
Term
T wave:
Definition
ventricular repo;arization immediately defore diastole
Term
cardiac cycle consists:
Definition
one complete cycle of contraction and relaxation
Term
major events of heart:
Definition
atrial systole, ventricualar systole, ventricualr diastole, quiescent period
Term
Pressure:
Definition
measured by observing how high it can push column of mercury up a manometer
Term
Blood pressure:
Definition
measured w/ sphygmomanometer
Term
Pressure gradients:
Definition
cause alternate opening and closing of heart valves
Term
Heart sounds:
Definition
heard through stethoscope closing of valve and turbulence of blood against inner heart wall
Term
Cardiac output:
Definition
volume pumped by each maximum and resting cardiac output
Term
Positive and Negative chronotropic agents
Definition
agents that raise and lower heart rate
Term
inotropic agents:
Definition
alter stroke volume of ventricles
Term
resting heart rate:
Definition
adult 64-72 in males 72-80 in females infant 120 or more
Term
Tachycardia:
Definition
persistent resting heart rate above 100 bpm
Term
Cardiac center monitors:
Definition
input recieved from proprioceptors, chemoreceptors, baroreceptors, can adjust heart rate accodingly
Term
cardiac center is divided:
Definition
into cardioacceleratory center and cardioinhibitory center that connect by nerves to SA node
Term
Sympathetic neurotransmitter:
Definition
adrenal gland hormones accelerate heart rate can arousal stress
Term
Chemicals that lower heart rate:
Definition
include sodium (hypernatremia) and potassium (hyperkalemia)
Term
Hypercalcemia:
Definition
increases heart rate and lead to cardiac arrest
Term
Stroke volume:
Definition
preload, contractility, afterload
Term
Amount of tension:
Definition
ventriccular ,yocardium immediately before it begins to contract called preload
Term
Frank- Starling law of heart:
Definition
ventricles tend to pump out all blood that entered them
Term
Contractility of myocardium:
Definition
its strength of contraction for a given preload
Term
Negative inotropic agents:
Definition
include myocardial hypoxia, hypercapnia, acidosis, barbiturates
Term
Afterload:
Definition
blood pressure in arteries just outside semilunar valves
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