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Anatomy and Physiology
exam 2
142
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
10/12/2010

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Term

Stratum Corneum

(horny layer)

Definition
Most superficial later; 20-30 layers of dead cells represented only by flat membranous sacs filled with keratin. Glycolipids in extracellular space
Term
stratum granulosum
Definition
three to five laters of flattened cells, organelles deteriorating; cytoplasm full of lamellated granules(release lipids) and keratohyaline granules.
Term

stratum spinosum

(prickly layer)

Definition
several laters of keratinocytes unified by desmosomes.  cells contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments made of pre-keratin.  see melanin granules and dendritic cells (langerhans cells)
Term
stratum basale
Definition
deepest epidermal later; one row of actively mitotic stem cells; some newly formed cells become part of the more superficial layers.  see occasional melanocytes and epidermal dendritic cells.
Term
Reticular layer
Definition

~80% of the thickness of dermis

collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency/bind water

elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties

Term
Cleavage lines
Definition
collagen fibers arranged in bundles form cleavage (tension) lines.  Incisions made parallel to cleavage lines heal more readily
Term
Flexure lines
Definition
dermal folds that occur at or near joints, where the dermis is tightly secured to deeper structures.
Term
Derivatives of the epidermis
Definition
sweat glands, oil glands, hairs and hair follicles, and nails
Term
Eccrine glands
Definition
(merocrine) abundant on palms, soles, and forehead.  99% water, NaCl, vitamin c, antibodies, dercidin, metabolic wastes.  connect to pores via ducts, thermoregulation
Term
Sebacious Glands
Definition
most develop from hair follicles, become active at puberty (androgens), produce sebum
Term
sebum
Definition
oily holocrine secretion, bactericidal, softens hair and skin, slows water loss from skin when externam humidity is low
Term
functions of the integumentary system
Definition
protection, body temperature regulation, cutaneous sensations, metabolic functions, blood reservoir, excretion
Term
squamous cell carcinoma
Definition
involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum, most common on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands
Term
skeletal cartilages
Definition
contain no blood vessels or nerves, dense CT girdle of perichondrium contains blood vessels for nutrient delivery to cartilage
Term
hyaline cartilages
Definition
provide support, flexibility, and resilience.  most abundant
Term
Elastic carilages
Definition
similar to hyaline, but contains elastic fibers
Term
fibrocartilages
Definition
collagen fibers, have great tensile strength
Term
appositional growth of cartilage
Definition
cells secrete matrix against the externam face of existing cartilage
Term
interstitial growth of cartilage
Definition
chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within
Term
functions of bones
Definition
support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis), triglyceride (energy) storage
Term
Bulges, depression, and holes in bones serve as..
Definition
sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons; joint surfaces; and conduits for blood vessels and nerves
Term
spongy bone in flat bones
Definition
diploe
Term
Red marrow cavities in adults
Definition
trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus, trabecular cavities of the diploe of flat bones
Term
Red marrow cavities in new born infants
Definition
all spaces in spongy bone
Term
osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells
Definition
stem cells in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblasts
Term
osteoblasts
Definition
bone-forming cells
Term
osteocyte
Definition
maintains bone tissue, mature bone cells
Term
osteoclasts
Definition
cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix
Term
Lamellae
Definition
weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes
Term
Central (Haversion) Canal
Definition
contains blood vessels and nerves
Term

perforating (volkmann's) canals

 

 

Definition
at right angles to the central canal, connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal
Term
lacunae
Definition
small cavities that contain osteocytes
Term
canaliculi
Definition
hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
Term
trabeculae
Definition
align along lines of stress, no osteons, contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi, and capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
Term
Organic chemical composition of bone
Definition
osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts.  Osteoid-org. bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts.  Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins), collagen fibers.
Term

Hydrocyapatites

(mineral salts)

Definition
65% of bone by mass, mainly calcium phosphate crystals, responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
Term
Intramembranous ossification
Definition
membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane, forms flat bones
Term
Endochondral ossification
Definition
cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
Term
Growth zone
Definition
cartilage cells undergo mitosis, pushing the epiphysis away from the diaphysis
Term
hypertrophic zone
Definition
older chondrocytes hypertrophy and their lacunae erode and enlarge
Term
transformation zone
Definition
older cells enlarge, the matrix becomes calcifies, cartilage cells die, and the matrix begins to deteriorate
Term
appositional growth in bone
Definition

thicker, stronger bone, grows wider

 

Term
during puberty, testosterone and estrogens regulate bone growth how?
Definition
they initially promote adolescent growth spurts, cause masculinization and feminization of specific parts of skeleton, and later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending longitudinal bone growth
Term
Alkaline phosphatase
Definition
produced by osteoblasts, is essential for mineralization of bone
Term
sites of new matrix deposition are revealed by..
Definition

osteoid seam (unmineralized band of bone matrix)

Calcification front (abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone)

 

Term
Osteoclasts secrete
Definition
lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix), and acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms)
Term
Calcium is necessary for
Definition
transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, secretion by glands and nerve cells, and cell division
Term
parathyroid hormone
Definition
increases blood calcium levels, stimulates osteoclast activity, increases intestinal calcium absorption, decreases excretion of calcium by the kidneys
Term
calcitonin
Definition
secreted by thyroid gland, lowers calcium levels.  inhibits osteoclast activity, and increases calcium excretion by kidneys
Term
wolff's law
Definition
a bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it
Term
classification of bone fractures
Definition

1.positions of ends after fracture

nondisplaced-ends retain reg. position

displaced-ends out of norm. alignment


2.Completeness of the break

complete-broke all the way through

incomplete-not all the way through

Term
paget's disease
Definition
high ratio of spongy bone to compact bone, treatment= calcitonin and biphosphonates
Term
Articulation
Definition
site where two or more bones meet
Term
functions of joints
Definition
give skeleton mobility, hold skeleton together
Term
Synarthroses joints
Definition
immovable
Term
amphiarthroses joints
Definition
slightly movable
Term
diarthroses joints
Definition
freely moveable
Term
Fibrous joints
Definition
bones joined by dense fibrous CT.  No joint cavity, most are synarthrotic (immovable) and there are 3 types: sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses
Term
Syndesmoses joings
Definition
bones connected by ligaments (bands of fibrous tissue), movement varies from immovable to slightly movable
Term
Cartilaginous joints
Definition
bones united by cartilage, no joint cavity.  two types:  synchondroses and symphyses
Term
synchonroses
Definition
a bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones, all are synarthrotic
Term
symphyses
Definition
hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surfaces and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage, they are strong, flexible, and amphiarthroses
Term
synovial joints
Definition
all are diarthrotic, and they include all limb joints, most joints of the body
Term
synovial joints: general structure
Definition
synovial joints all have the following:  articular cartilage, joint (synovial) cavity, Articular capsule, synovial fluid, reinforcing ligaments, and rich nerve and blood supplys
Term
distinguishing features of synovial joints
Definition

1.articular (hyaline) cartilage

2. Joint (synovial) cavity

3. articular (joint) capsule: outer fibrous capsule of dense irregular tissue, inner synovial membrane of loose connective tissue

4. synovial fluid

Term

Three possible types of reinforcing ligaments in synovial joints

 

Definition

capsular (intrinsic) - part of the fibrous capsule

Extracapsular (extrinsic) - outside the capsule

Intracapsular - deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane

Term
Brusae
Definition
flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes, and is a friction-reducing structure.  it contains synovial fluid, and commonly act as "ball bearings" where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
Term
tendon sheath
Definition
elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon
Term
stabilizing factors at synovial joints
Definition
shapes of articular surfaces (minor), ligament number and location (limited), muscle tone, which keeps tendons that cross the joint taut
Term
Origin
Definition
attatchment to the immovable bone
Term
Insertion
Definition
attachment to the movable bone
Term
Movement in synovial joints
Definition
muscle contraction causes the insertion to move toward the origin, movements occur along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes
Term
Nonaxial range of motion
Definition
found in synovial joints, slipping movements only
Term
unaxial range of motion
Definition
found in synovial joints, movement in one place
Term
biaxial range of motion
Definition
found in synovial joints, movement in two planes
Term
multiaxial range of motion
Definition
movement in or around all three planes, found in synovial joints
Term
Three general types of movements at synovial joints
Definition

1.Gliding

2. Angular movements:

flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction

3. Rotation:

medial and lateral rotation

 

Term
Special movements at synovial joints
Definition
supination, pronation, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion of the foot, inversion, eversion, protraction, retraction, elevation, depression, opposition
Term
abduction
Definition
movement away from the midline
Term
adduction
Definition
movement toward the midline
Term
supination
Definition
turning hand backward
Term
pronation
Definition
turning hand forward
Term
dorsiflexion
Definition
upward movment of foot
Term
plantar flexion
Definition
downward movement of foot
Term
six types of synovial joint classifications
Definition
plane, hinge, pivot,condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket
Term
plane joints
Definition
nonaxial joints, flat articular surfaces, and short gliding movements
Term
Hinge joints
Definition
uniaxial joints, motion along a single plane, and flexion and extension only
Term
pivot joints
Definition
rounded end of one bone conforms to a "sleeve," or ring of another bone, uniaxial movement only
Term
condyloid (Ellipsoidal) joints
Definition
biaxial joints, both articular surfaces are oval, and permit all angular movements
Term
saddle joints
Definition
biaxial, allow greater freedom of movement than condyloid joints, each articular surface has both concave and convex areas
Term
ball-and-socket joints
Definition
multiaxial joints, the most freely moving synovial joints
Term
Shoulder (Glenohumeral) Joint
Definition
ball-and-socket joint:head of humerus and glenoid fossa of the scapula, glenoid cavity slightly deepened by glenoid labrum=rim of fibrocartilage, and stability is sacrificed for greater freedom of movement
Term
Rotator Cuff Muscles
Definition

SITS muscles-reinforce should joint to prevent dislocation of humerus

Supraspinatus

Infraspinatus

Teres minor

Subscapularis

Term
Elbow Joint
Definition
radius and ulna articulate with the humerus, hinge joint formed mainly by trochlear notch of ulna and trochlea of humerus, flexion and extension only
Term
Hip (Coxal) Joint
Definition
Ball-and-socket joint, head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum, good range of motion,but limited by the deep socket, acetabular labrum(enhanced depth of socket), and is reinforced by several strong ligaments
Term
Temporomandibular Joint
Definition
mandibular condyle articulates with the temporal bone, two types of movement - hinge- depression and elevation of mandible, and Gliding- side-to-side motion, and it is the most easily dislocated joint in the body
Term
Bursitis
Definition
inflammation of a bursa, usually caused by a blow or friction, and is treated with rest and ice, and if severe, anti-inflammatory drugs
Term
Tendonitis
Definition
inflammation of tendon sheaths typically caused by overuse, symptoms and treatment similar to bursitis
Term
Osteoarthritis
Definition
common, irreversible, degenerative ("wear-and-tear") arthritis ->85% of all americans develop this
Term
Gouty arthritis
Definition
deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by inflammation, it is more common in men, typically affects the joint at the base of the great toe, if untreated bone ends fuse and immobilize joint
Term
skeletal muscle
Definition
long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells with striations.  their functions are voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of environment; facial expression, and voluntary control
Term
myofilaments
Definition
elaborate versions of actin and myosin filaments that bring out movement or contraction in all cell types
Term
cardiac muscle
Definition
found only in walls of heart, its contractions help propel blood through the blood vessels to all parts of body, they are striated, however they are branching and uninucleate
Term
smooth muscle
Definition
have no visible striations, are spindle shaped, uninucleate, found mainly in walls of hollow organs other than heart, it acts to squeeze substances through these organs by alternatly contracting and relaxing
Term
voluntary muscle
Definition
skeletal
Term
involuntary muscle
Definition
cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
Term
skin appendages
Definition
nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles and hair
Term
redness, or erythema
Definition
may indicate emarassment (blushing), fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy
Term
pallor, or blanching
Definition
during fear, anger stress, become pale, pale may also indicate anemia or low blood pressure
Term
jaundice
Definition
liver disorder where yellow pigments accumulate in blood and are deposited to body tissues
Term
bronzing
Definition
a bronze, almost metallic appearance of the skin is a sign of addison's disease, in which the adrenal cortex is producing inadequate amounts of its steroid hormones
Term
skeletal muscle tissue
Definition
attached to bones and skin, striated, voluntary, powerful
Term
special characteristics of muscle tissue
Definition
excitablility (responsiveness or irritability): ability to recieve and respond to stimuli, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity
Term
Muscle functions
Definition
movement of bones or fluids, maintaining posture and body position, stabilizing joints, and heat generation (especially skeletal)
Term
what is skeletal muscle served by?
Definition
one artery, one nerve, and one or more veins
Term
direct skeletal muscle attachment
Definition
 epimysium of muscle is fused to the periosteum of bone or pericondrium of cartilage
Term
indirect skeletal muscle attachment
Definition
connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle as a ropelike tendon or sheetlike
Term
epimysium
Definition
dense regular CT surrounding entire skeletal muscle
Term
perimysium
Definition
connective tissue that surrounds each fasicle
Term
endomysium
Definition
connective tissue that surrounds each muscle cell
Term
skeletal muscle cells are subdivided to what?
Definition
myofibrils
Term
myofibrils
Definition

densely packed, rodlike elements

~80%of cell volume, and they exhibit striations: perfectly aligned repeating series of dark a bands and light i bands

Term
sarcolemma
Definition
plasma membrane of the muscle
Term
sarcomere
Definition
contractile unit, made up of contractile proteins between two z discs
Term
thick filaments
Definition
run entire length of the a band
Term
thin filaments
Definition
rub the length of the I band and partway in to the A band
Term
Z disc
Definition
coin-shaped sheet of proteins that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another
Term
H zone
Definition
lighter midregion where filaments do not overlap
Term
M line
Definition
line of protein myomesin that holds adjacent thick filaments together
Term
Myosin tails contain...
Definition
2 interwoven, heavy polypeptide chains
Term
Myosin heads contain..
Definition
2 smaller, light polypeptide chains that act as cross bridges during contraction, binding sites for actin of thin filaments, binding sites for ATP, and ATPase enzymes
Term
Ultrastructure of Thin Filament
Definition
twisted double strand of fibrous protein F actin, F actin consists of G (globular) actin subunits, G actin bears active sites for myosin head attachment during contraction, tropomyosin and troponin
Term
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum surrounding each myofibril, pairs of terminal cisternae form perpendicular cross channels, and functions in the regulation of intracellular Ca2+ levels
Term
T Tubules
Definition
continuous with the sarcolemma, penetrate the cell's interior at each A band-I band junction, and associate with the paired terminal cisternae to form triads that encircle each sarcomere
Term
Triad Relationships
Definition
T tubules conduct impulses deep into muscle fiber, integral proteins protrude into the intermembrane space from T tubule and SR cisternae membranes
Term
T tubule proteins
Definition
voltage sensors
Term
SR foot proteins
Definition

gated channels that regulate Ca2+ 

release from the SR cisternae

 

Term
Nerve stimulation of skeletal muscle
Definition
skeletal muscles are stimulated by motor neurons of the somatic nervous system, Axons of these neurons travel in nerves (groups) to muscle cells, Axons of motor neurons branch profusely as they enter muscles, and each axonal branch forms a neuromuscular junction with a single muscle fiber
Term
acetylcholinesterase
Definition
gets rid of ACh by breaking it down to acetic acid and choline
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