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Anatomical Positions
from lecture Oct 11
81
Anatomy
Graduate
10/15/2011

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Term
Median (mid-sagittal):
Definition
Vertical, front-to-back plane through the mid-line which divides the body into left and right halves.
Term
Sagittal (para-median)
Definition
Any plane parallel to the median plane.
Term
Frontal (coronal):
Definition
Vertical, side-to-side plane (parallel to the coronal suture of skull) that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) halves.
Term
Transverse (horizontal, axial):
Definition
Planes at right angles to the long axis of body dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) regions.
Term
Anatomical planes
Definition
A. Median (mid-sagittal): Vertical, front-to-back plane through the mid-line which divides the body into left and right halves.

B. Sagittal (para-median): Any plane parallel to the median plane.

C. Frontal (coronal): Vertical, side-to-side plane (parallel to the coronal suture of skull) that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) halves.

D. Transverse (horizontal, axial): Planes at right angles to the long axis of body dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) regions.
Term
Medial:
Definition
toward the median plane
Term
Lateral:
Definition
away from the median plane
Term
Ulnar:
Definition
side of the forearm, wrist or hand near the ulna, therefore medial
Term
Radial:
Definition
side of the forearm, wrist or hand near the radius, therefore lateral
Term
Ipsilateral:
Definition
on the same side of the median plane
Term
Contralateral:
Definition
on the opposite side of the median plane
Term
Anterior, ventral:
Definition
in front of the frontal plane
Term
Posterior, dorsal:
Definition
behind the frontal plane
Term
Superior (rostral, cranial):
Definition
above a transverse plane (towards the head)
Term
Inferior (caudal):
Definition
below a transverse plane (towards the tail end of the trunk)
Term
Proximal:
Definition
near the attachment or origin of a limb or structure to the axial skeleton
Term
Distal:
Definition
away from the attachment or origin of a limb or structure to the axial skeleton
Term
Superficial:
Definition
near the surface
Term
Deep:
Definition
farther from the surface
Term
Palmar (volar):
Definition
anterior surface of the hand
Term
Plantar (sole):
Definition
inferior surface of the foot
Term
Dorsum:
Definition
posterior surface of the hand or superior surface of the foot.
Term
Flexion:
Definition
decreasing the angle between two bones of parts of the body. Usually in an anterior direction, except for the knee (posterior), ankle (dorsal and plantar) and thumb
Term
Extension:
Definition
increasing the angle between two bones of parts of the body. Usually in a posterior direction, except for the knee (anterior) and thumb (see below). The term extension is never used to describe ankle motions.
Term
Hyperextension:
Definition
extension beyond the normal limit, which is usually injurious.
Term
Abduction:
Definition
for neck, trunk and limbs: away from the median plane of the body
Term
Adduction
Definition
for neck, trunk and limbs: toward the median plane of the body
Term
median plane of the forearm and hand
Definition
runs down the middle of the forearm. wrist, hand, and 3rd finger, dividing them into ulnar (medial) and radial (lateral) halves.

Deviation of the wrist toward either side of this plane is termed ulnar of radial abduction; the term ‘adduction’ is never used to describe wrist motions.
Term
Abduction:
Definition
spreading the fingers away from the median plane of the forearm and hand.
Term
Adduction:
Definition
moving fingers toward the median plane of the forearm and hand
Term
The palmar plane
Definition
of the hand is equivalent to the anterior surface of the palm.
Term
Abduction:
Definition
thumb away from palmer plane of hand
Term
Adduction
Definition
thumb move toward the palmer plane of the hand
Term
flexion:
Definition
movement of thumb in the palmar plane in the ulnar direction
Term
extension:
Definition
movement of thumb in parmar plane in the radial direction
Term
Circumduction:
Definition
The shoulder, hip, neck, trunk and fingers have sufficient freedom of motion to allow a combination of flexion, abduction, extension and adduction to produce this circular or cone-like movement.
Term
Medial (internal) rotation:
Definition
Rotation around the long axis of a structure (e.g. arm, thigh, forearm, spine):

anterior surface moves medially (e.g. arm, thigh, spine)
Term
Lateral (external) rotation:
Definition
Rotation around the long axis of a structure (e.g. arm, thigh, forearm, spine):

anterior surface moves laterally (e.g. arm, thigh, spine)
Term
Pronation:
Definition
medial rotation of the forearm
Term
Supination:
Definition
lateral rotation of the forearm
Term
Upward rotation of the scapula:
Definition
lateral side and glenoid cavity move superiorly while the medial side moves inferiorly
Term
Downward rotation of the scapula:
Definition
lateral side and glenoid cavity move inferiorly while the medial side moves superiorly
Term
Opposition of the thumb:
Definition
the palmar surface of the thumb faces the palm and opposes the other fingers. The movement of opposition combines abduction, flexion, medial rotation and adduction.
Term
Protraction:
Definition
movement in an anterior direction
Term
Retraction:
Definition
movement in a posterior direction
Term
Elevation:
Definition
movement in a superior direction
Term
Depression:
Definition
movement in an inferior direction
Term
Fibrous joint:
Definition
Includes immovable (e.g. sutures of skull) and slightly movable (e.g. ankle, tooth) articulations held together by tough connective tissue fibers. Sutures are interdigitating immovable joints; a syndesmosis is formed by bones that are relatively far apart but held together by ligaments (e.g. ankle); gomphoses is a peg and socket joint (e.g. tooth and jaw).
Term
Cartilaginous joint:
Definition
Bones joined by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage (e.g. pubic symphysis, intervertebral disks). These joints are strong and slightly movable.
Term
Synovial joint:
Definition
A freely movable joint consisting of a joint cavity containing a lubricating synovial fluid, bone ends covered by articular cartilage, and an enclosing articular capsule. This is the most common type of joint.
Term
Ball and socket (e.g. shoulder, hip):
Definition
synovial joint that allows for: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, axial rotation
Term
Saddle (e.g. carpo-metacarpal joint of thumb):
Definition
synovial joint that allows for:
(e.g. carpo-metacarpal joint of thumb): concave in 1 plane, convex in the perpendicular plane. Movements are similar to ball and socket joints but are more limited, particularly the axial rotation.
Term
Hinge (e.g. elbow):
Definition
synovial joint that allows for:
motion only in the sagittal plane; flexion and extension
Term
Chondyloid (e.g. knuckles):
Definition
synovial joint that allows for:
motion in the sagittal and frontal planes; flexion, extension, abduction and adduction
Term
Pivot (e.g. radio-ulnar):
Definition
synovial joint that allows for:
one bone pivots within a sleeve or orbits around another bone. Motion is an axial rotation.
Term
Gliding (e.g. wrist carpals, foot tarsals):
Definition
synovial joint that allows for:
flat surfaces glide over each other
Term
Mixed (e.g. knee):
Definition
synovial joint that allows for:
combines characteristics of hinged, pivot and gliding joints.
Term
skeletal muscle
Definition
attached mainly to bones, moves bones (and eyes)
Term
cardiac muscle
Definition
forms heart walls, moves blood
Term
smooth muscle
Definition
in walls of hollow organs; controls movement of material through these organs
Term
skeletal muscle and movement
Definition
1.) Skeletal muscles are attached, either directly or indirectly via tendons, to bones, cartilages, ligaments, aponeurosis or skin. Thus, the force exerted by a muscle is directed to specific locations.
2.)Muscles simply contract or shorten; they can only pull and they never push. They produce movements by virtue of pulling on their attachments to bones etc.
3.)When a contracting muscle pulls on its attachments, typically one attachment site is fixed and does not move while the other one moves. The attachment site that does not move is the origin, while the one that moves is the insertion. In the extremities, the origin is usually the more proximal of the two.
4.)Typically, muscles move bones at joints because the origin is on one side of a joint while the insertion is on the other side. The muscle is said to span or cross the joint. The relationship between the attachments and the joint determines the leverage that the muscle can exert and the range of motion that the contraction can produce. Muscle size (i.e. strength) is another factor in the power and speed that the contraction can produce.
5.)Skeletal muscles have a variety of architectures. Students should become familiar with these types.
Term
agonist or prime mover muscle
Definition
the main muscle that contracts to produce the desired movement.
Term
antagonist muscle
Definition
muscle that contracts to produce the action which is opposite to that of the agonist. Typically, this muscle relaxes gradually to produce a smooth motion when the agonist contracts.
Term
synergist muscle
Definition
muscle that acts together with the agonist to counteract an unwanted secondary action of the agonist
Term
Fixator muscle
Definition
muscle that typically steadies a bone or joint while movements occur at other joints.
Term
What happens to muscles if they do not have normal activity of motor neurons?
Definition
they will not contract and they will atrophy
Term
The nervous system is divided into:
Definition
Central Nervous System (CNS), consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), consisting of all the nervous tissue outside the CNS. The PNS contains all of the nerves studied in the anatomy of the extremities.
Term
CNS
Definition
nervous system that contains brain and spinal cord
Term
PNS
Definition
nervous system that contains nerves studied in the anatomy of the extremities
Term
Nervous tissues in the CNS and the PNS consist of two principal cell types:
Definition
Neurons (or nerve cells) and glia. Neurons can detect physical and/or chemical stimuli and carry information about those stimuli to other target cells, including other neurons. Glia are supporting cells.
Term
Neurons
Definition
have a cell body that contains the cell’s nucleus. The cell body, and tree-like extensions of the cell body called dendrites, contain specialized membrane receptors that detect physical or chemical stimuli. A single long pipe-like extension of the cell body, called the axon, contains membrane specializations that enable it to carry and deliver information about the stimulus over long distances to specific target cells.
Term
The nerves in the PNS are either 2 different types:
Definition
cranial or spinal

Cranial nerves (12 pairs) connect the brain to peripheral structures, mainly in the head, while spinal nerves (31 pairs) connect the spinal cord to peripheral structures in the neck and the body
Term
Each peripheral nerve
Definition
contains thousands of nerve fibers bound in a series of sheaths. Each single fiber is the axon of a sensory or a motor neuron. A sensory axon carries information about the environment inside or outside the body to the CNS. A motor axon carries signals from the CNS to a specific skeletal muscle, a smooth muscle, cardiac muscle or a gland. Most peripheral nerves typically contain both sensory and motor axons.
Term
spinal nerve root
Definition
The part of each spinal nerve that lies near the vertebral

As each of these roots enters the vertebral column to approach the spinal cord, it divides in two: posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral)
Term
posterior (dorsal) root
Definition
lying inside the vertebral column, contains only sensory axons which have left the spinal nerve root to enter the dorso-lateral part of the spinal cord and deliver their sensory information to neurons lying inside the spinal cord. Thus, the dorsal root is sometimes called the sensory root, as it carries sensory information exclusively.
Term
anterior (ventral) root
Definition
also lying inside the vertebral column, contains only motor axons which have exited from the ventro-lateral part of the spinal cord to enter the spinal nerve root. The cell bodies of these motor neurons are located inside the spinal cord, and they send motor signals into the spinal nerve along their axons that lie in ventral root. Since the ventral root contains motor axons exclusively, it is sometimes called the motor root.
Term
dorsal root ganglion (DRG),
Definition
Each dorsal root contains a swelling, just near the junction with the spinal nerve root. the swelling is called this; it contains the cell bodies of the sensory neurons whose axons lie in the spinal nerve and continue in the dorsal root. (A ‘ganglion’ is a collection of neuronal cell bodies that lies outside the CNS. A collection of neuronal cell bodies lying inside the CNS is called a ‘nucleus”.)
Term
Moving laterally along the spinal nerve root, away from the vetebral column, the nerve root divides into 3 rami (branches). These 3 are called:
Definition
1) dorsal ramus
2) ventral ramus
3) meningeal (middle) ramus
Term
dorsal ramus
Definition
turns dorsally to provide nerves to the vertebral column, the deep muscles of the back and the overlying skin
Term
ventral ramus
Definition
continues laterally to provide nerves to the limbs, the lateral and anterior trunk and the overlying skin. The nerves dissected in the extremities are all derivatives of the ventral rami of several of the spinal nerves.
Term
'small' meningeal (middle) ramus
Definition
turns back toward the vertebral column to provide nerves to the inside of the spinal canal and to the membranes covering the spinal cord.
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