Anatomy

Physiology

(ana= up; tomy= cutting)

study of the structure of the body describing parts of the body

(physio=nature; logy=study of)

study of the function of the body,

understanding how the body works

Basic life processes

(6 important characteristics of all living organism)

metabolism

responsiveness

movement

growth

diffrentiation

reproduction

-production of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement.

production of a new individual

ability to detect and respond to changes in the enviroment.

(internal/external enviroment)

(homeo=sameness;stasis= standing still)

the condition of equilibrium balance in the bodys internal enviroment.

a dynamic process,

the body seeks to maintain a constant internal enviroment despite internal and external changes.

homeostasis includes regulation of volume and composition of body fluids.

(ICF)

fluids with cells also called cytosol.

(ECF)

fluid outside of cells

interstitial fluid is the fluid between cells tissue

ECF also includes blood plasma, lymph, etc.

(metabol=change)

sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body,

includes catabolism and anabolism.

(catabol=throwing down)

breaking down complex molecules into more simple molecules.

(anabol=raising up)

synthesizing complex molecules from more simple molecules.

chemical

cellular

tissue

organ

system

organismal

cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organism,

about 200 types of cell in human body.

system consist of related organs that work together to perform a common function.

11 major organ system in the body.

epithelial tissue

connective tissue

muscular tissue

nervous tissue

receptors

control center

effectors

Homeostasis is maintained via loops/ systems.

EX. of FBS

nerve endings (receptors) in the skin detect drop in external (atmosphere) and internal (body) temerature.

brain (control center) receives input from nerve endings and sends output to muscles.

skeletal muscles (effectors) shiver to generate heat and body temperature.

response reverses a change in controlled condition.

slows and stop as homeostasis is restored.

used to regulate condition that remain fairly stable over long periods.

response reinforce a change in controlled condition,

requires an outside event to interrupt it.

used to reinforce conditions that dont happen frequently.

head

neck

trunk

upper limb

lower limb

cranial

towards head

center

middle

caudal

towards tail

ventral

front

dorsal

back

(tissue cross section)

near the surface

sagittal plane

frontal plane

transverse plane

oblique plane

Sagittal plane

(saggit=arrow)

Frontal plane

coronal plane

(corona=crown)

Transverse plane

aka cross section plane

Body cavities

cranial cavity

vertebral cavity

contains brain

spinal

pericardial cavity (contains heart)

pleural cavity ( contains lung)

abdominal cavity

pelvic cavity

an element is a substance composed of one type of atom,

elements cannot be split into simpler substances

fundamental components of matter,

elements are symbolized by their chemical symbols.

__known chemical elements

____naturally occurs on earth

____occur in human body

_______ accounts for____% of body mass

H,C,N,O

117

92

26

4, 96%

smallest unit of matter that retain the properties and charateristics of the element.

Protons + charge occurs in nucleus

neutrons no charge occurs in nucleus

electrons - charge orbits nucleus,

shells are filled from innermost to outermost in elements (different atoms).

orbits the nucleus in regions called shells,

each shell can hold a certain number of electrons.

outermost shell is called the valence shells

equals to the number of protons plus number of neutrons in an atom.

all atoms of a given element have same atomic number but the atomic mass number may vary.

Atomic mass

(aka AMU- atomic mass unit)

mass of an atom is measured in daltons

neutron=

proton=

electron=

1.008 daltons

1.007 daltons

0.0005 daltons

typically, the atomic mass of an element is close to the mass number of the most common isotopes.

an atom that has lost or gain an electron.

atoms can lose or gain electrons

has either a - charge or a + charge.

negatively charged ions

has either + and - charge ions are attracted to one another.

when two or more atoms share electron.

atoms may be the same elements

Ex. O2

atoms may be different elements

Ex. H2O or NaCl

substance composed of two or more different types of atoms (two or more elements)

compounds are symbolized by molecular formulas which indicate...

elements involved

number of atoms in each element

Ex. H2O is the molecular formula for the compound of water.

structural formulas indicate..

elements involved

numbers of atom in each elements

arrangement of the atoms in relation to one another.

forces that hold atoms of molecule together,

form when atoms lose, gain, or share electrons.

atoms lose, gain or share electrons in particular ways in order to form stable valence shells.

stable when they hold eight electrons.

atoms with stable valence shells dont tend to form chemical bonds.

arent chemically reactive.

unstable if they hold more or less than eight electrons.

atoms with unstable do tend to form chemical bonds.

they are chemically reactive.

atoms react in predictable ways.

atoms with unstable valence shells will interact in such a way as to produce chemically stable arrangements of eight valence electron for each atom.

ionic bond

covalent bond

hydrogen bond

formed when one atom loses one or more electrons to another atom (vice versa) in order for both atoms to have valence shells (octet rule).

positively charged and negatively charged ions are attracted to each other one another.

formed when atoms share one, two, or three pairs of electrons in order for both to have filled valence shell (octet rule)

bond stength increases with number of electron shared

single covalent bond-H2 or CH4

double covalent bond-O2

triple covalent bond- N2

atoms that attracts electrons more strongly is said to be?

a molecule with a polar covalent bond will have a slight - charge in one region and a slight + charge in another region.

formed when a hydrogen atom with a partial + charge attracts an atom with a partial - charge.

depends on the attraction between polar molecules.

not on sharing electrons

weaker than ionic or covalent bonds.

an ionic compound that dissociates in water to form an anion and a cation is called an _____________ because the solution can conduct an electrical current.

most ions in the body are dissociated in body fluids as electrolytes.

chemical reactions are interactions between atoms.

chemical reactions occur when new chemical bonds form or old chemical bonds break between atoms.

during a chemical reactions, matter is converted from one form to another but is not created or destroyed is

(law of conservation of mass or matter)

characterized by its..

starting substance (reactants)

ending substance (products)

A+B---AB

Na+Cl-----NaCl

Forms of energy

chemical reactions involve energy changes.

energy (en=____;ergy=____)

=in

=work

potential energy

kinetic energy

chemical energy

during a chemical reaction...

energy is converted from one form to another.

but not created or destroyed this is called:

Exergonic

ex=_____

=out

reactions release more energy than they absorb.

generally associated with catabolism (breaking chemical bonds).

Endergonic

end=_____

=in

reactions absorb more energy than they release.

generally associated with anabolism ( forming chemical bonds).

particles of matter (atoms, ions, and molecules) have kinetic energy and are constantly in motion.

two or more  particles must collide with sufficient force for the chemical reaction to occur.

the collision of energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction is called the activation energy.

an initial input of energy is required to initiate any chemical reaction ( even an exergonic reaction).

the chance that a collision will occur with sufficient force to initiate a chemical reaction depends upon...

concentration of the reactants

temperature

chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to initiate the reactions.

catalyst arent changed by the chemical reaction, so they catalyze many reactions.

typically, catalysts work by properly orientating colliding particles ( proper orientating is especially important for large molecules.)

synthesis reactions

decompostion reactions

exchange reactions

reversible reactions

(anabolism)

synthesis of complex product from more simple reactants.

typically endergonic (absorb more energy than they release)

Ex. A+B----AB

(Catabolism)

decompostion of complex reactants onto more simple product, typically exergonic.

Ex. AB------A+B

AB+CD-------AD+BC

HCl+NaHCO3----H2CO3 + NaCl

hydrochloric acid+sodium bicarbonate----carbonic acid+ sodium chloride

product can revert to the original reactants indicated by double-ended arrow sometimes under specific conditions

Ex. A+B---AB

usually lack carbon

may have ionic or covalent bonds

usually structually simple

always have carbon

usually contain hydrogen

always have covalent bonds

often structually complex

most important and abundant inorganic compound in the human body.

has several properties that make it important for metabolic processes.

a solvent

invovled in many important chemical reactions.

has a high heat capacity

water=common solvent

in a solution, one substance (solute) is dissolved in a second substance (solvent).

many biologically important solutes will dissolve in water.

mainly because water is a polar molecule.

decomposition reactions often break down complex molecules by the addition of water (hydrolysis reactions).

synthesis reactions often produce water as a byproduct of the formation of complex molecules

(dehydration reactions)

has a high heat capacity.

can absorb large amount of heat with only a small change in its temperature.

because the energy of heat is used to break hydrogen bonds between molecules.

this properly lessens the effect of temperature change in the body.

an acid dissociates (dissolve in water) into hydrogen ion (H+) and one or more anions.

an acid is a proton donor.

because a hydrogen  ion (H+) = a proton

a base dissociates into hydroxide ion (OH) and one or more cations.

a base is a proton acceptor.

a salt dissociates into a cation and an anion )neither of which is H+ or OH-).

acids and bases react with one another to form salts.

balance between acids (concentration of H+) and bases (concetration of OH-) in a solution is expressed in the pH scale.

the pH scale ranges from 0 to 14

at midpoint (pH 7) the H+ and OH- are equal.

solutions of pH less then 7 are more acidic.

solution of pH greater than 7 are more basic.

metabolic processes function best within a narrow range of pH.

homeostasis includes maintaining a fairly constant pH in body fluids.

buffer system assist with maintaining a constant pH.

buffer system convert strong acids and bases into weak ones ( which have less pH).

(bicarbonate buffer system)

H2CO3-----H+ HCO3

if pH is to high (H+ concetration to low)

carbon atoms easily form covalent bonds with one another to form long chains (straight or branched) or rings.

hydroxol group (-OH) alcohols

suflhydroxyl group (-SH) thiols

carbonyl group (-C=O) ketones and aldehydes

carboxyl group (-COOH) carboxylic acids

ester group (-COOK) esters

phosphate group (-PO42-) phosphate

amino group (-NH2) amines

small organic molecules combine to form macromolecules (macro=large)

macromolecules often take the form of polymers (poly=many; mer=part)

includes sugar, glycogen, starches, and cellulose.

contain C, H, O

mainly used in human body as source of chemical energy.

to generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

takes the form of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

monosaccharides

mono=______

sacchar=_____

=one

=sugar

are the monomers of carbohydrates

Ex. glucose and fructose

Dissaccharides

di=____

=two

two monosaccharides can form a chemical bond to produce it

Ex. sucrose(table sugar)

consists of 10 to 100 of monosaccharides,

includes glycogen, starches, and cellulose.

glycogen is stored in liver and skeletal muscle as an energy reserve.

starches ( digestable by human)

and cellulose (indigestable) are produce by plants.

Lipids

lip=____

=fat

includes triglycerides (fats and oil), phospholipids, steroids, and fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K).

contains C,H,O

typically insoluble in water (hydrophobic).

lipids are polymers composed of fatty acids.

most simple lipids

consist of hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group.

carbon atoms of hydrocarbon chain link by single covalent bonds only (saturated fatty acids).

one or more double covalent bond in addition to single covalent bonds (unsaturated fatty acids).

Triglycerides

tri=____

=three

composed of 1 glycerol molecule

3 fatty acid molecules

at room temp, triglycerides can be

solids (fats)

liquids (oil)

stored in adipose (fat) tissue as an energy reserve.

composed of 1 glycerol molecule

2 fatty acids (nonpolar)

1 phosphate (PO43-) group (polar)

cell membrane is composed of phospholipid bilayer.

phospholipids

amphipathic molecules

amphi=____; pathic=____

composed of polar____ and nonpolar_______parts

=both

=feeling

=

hydrophilic

hydrophobic

composed of..

4 carbon rings

often contain a hydroxyl group (-OH)

structural and functional role

Ex. hormones

includes a wide variety of molecules

contains C,H,O and N (sometimes S)

more complex structure than carbohydrates or lipids.

structional and functional roles

Ex. enzymes (biological catalysts)

proteins are polymers composed of amino acids.

only 20 different amino acids.

 each amino acids inlcudes..

an amino group(-NH2)

a carboxyl group (-COOH)

a side chain(different in each amino acids)

at normal body pH, both amino and carboxyl groups are ionized.

amino acid can joined via a peptide bond.

a peptide bond is a covalent bond betweent..

the carbon atom of the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acids.

the nitrogen atom of the amino (-NH2) group of the other amino acid.

many amino acid can be joined in a polypeptide.

a protein can have one or more polypeptide chains.

protein structure

(primary structure)

protein structure

(secondary structure)

twisting or folding of polypeptide chains ( stabilized by hydrogen bonds between ionized functional groups)

including alpha helics and pleated sheets.

protein structure

(tertiary structure)

3D shpe of protein (stabilized by several types of bonds).

hydrophobic portions of protein often get folded inside (away from watery enviroment of body fluids).

protein structure

(quaternary structure)

structural relationship between polypeptide chains  (stabilized by several types of bonds).

structure of protein determines its function.

Ex.the structure of an enzyme allows it to bind to a substrate.

when exposed to extreme of pH or temperature, protein can lose their 3d shape.

interupts the proper functioning of the protein.

most biological catalystes are enzymes,

all enzymes are protein,

names of enzymes ends with suffix-ase.

each enzymes catalyzes  a specific reactions,

it binds to a specific substrate,(reactant).

specifically is due to 3D structure of protein  enzymes.

enzyme function

(active site)

enzymes are very efficient.

catalyze reactions millions or billions of times faster than if they were absent.

enzymes are highly regulated by cellular controls.

polymers composed of nucleotides.

contain C,H,O,N,P

includes DNA and RNA

double stranded

found in one cell nucleus

the inherited genetic material inside cells.

single stranded

different types of RNA found in nucleus of in cytoplasma of cell.

relays info between DNA and cellular machinery of protein synthesis.

a pentose sugar (deoxyribose)

a phosphate group (PO43-) group.

one of 4 different nitrogenous bases.

Nitrogenous bases in DNA

what are the 4 types?

purines (large,double ridge)

adenine (A)

guanine (G)

pyridimines (small, single ridge)

thymine (T)

cytosine (C)

two chains of nucleotide coil around one another (double helix).

linked by bonds between nitrogenous bases (base pairs).

phosphate groups of pentose sugar alternate to form backbone of each nucleotide chain.

base pair sit between the backbones of two nucleotide chains.

like rungs on a ladder.

base pairs always combine in a specific fashion:

(DNA tructure)

A always pair with T

C always pair with G

a big purine with a small pyridine.

single stranded (in humans)

pentose sugar in ribose (not deoxyribose)

Uracil (U) replaces thymines (T)

messenger RNA (mRNA)

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

transfer RNA (rRNA)

another important organic compound

energy ''currency'' of cells

ATP

composed of :

adenosine

adenine ( a nitrogenous base)

ribose sugar

3 phosphate (PO43) groups.

''energy currency'' used to link exergonic catabolism and endergonic anabolism in living organism.

the base structural and functional unit of living organisms.

about 200 different types of cells (specialized) in the human body.

average adult human body composed of 100 trillion cells.

Plasma membrane (flexible outer membrane)

cytoplasm (cyto=cell;plasm=formed or molded)

cytosol (liquid portion of cell)

organelles (solid portion of the cell)

ribosomes

endoplasmic reticulum

golgi complex

mitochondria

etc.

nucleus ( special organelle that contains genetic info in form of DNA).

flexible, selectively permeable-regulates movement of substances into and out of cell.

composed of a phospholipid bilayer, in which proteins are embedded, a fluid mosaic.

Phospholipid bilayer

in plasma membrane

forms because of amphipathethic nature of phospholipid molecules.

polar (hydrophilic) phosphate group ''heads'' face watery enviroment on inside and outside of cell.

nonpolar (hydrophobic) fatty acids ''tails'' face away from watery enviroment.

arrangement of membrane protein

(intergral proteins)

extend into phospholipid bilayer.

some intergral membranes extend all the way across and protrude on each side of the bilayer (transmembrane proteins).

arrangement of membrane proteins

(peripheral proteins)

membrane protein function

(Ions channel)

membrane protein functions

(Transporters)

membrane protein function

(enzymes)

membrane protein functions

(receptors)

bind to specific molecules used to signal cell.

a molecule that binds to a receptor is a ligand.

membrane protein function

(linkers)

membrane serves as many function

(cell identity markers)

membrane fluidity

selective permeability

gradients

phospholipids are in constant motion.

old bonds in fatty acid tails introduce ''kinks''.

which prevent phospholipids from packing together densely.

allowing for movement.

therefore, the plasma membrane and its components can move,

allowing for cell growth, maintenance and repair.

some molecules can cross plasma membrane and others cant.

permeable to small, uncharged, nonpolar molecules.

dependent on selective permeability.

molecules may differ in concentration across membrane (concentration gradient).

ions may differ in concentration across membrane (electrical gradient or membrane potential).

transport across the plasma membrane

(passive transport)

a substance move down to concentration or electrical gradient.

requires no energy input from cell.

transport across plasma membrane

(active transport)

a substance in driven against its concetration or electrical gradient,

requires energy input from cell.

mechanism of transport across plasma membrane

(passive mechanism)

diffusion

osmosis

facilitated diffusion

channel mediated facilitated diffusion

carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

mechanism of transport across plasma membrane

(active mechanism)

active transport

primary active transport

secondary active transporttransport in vesicles

passive process

molecules are in constant motion

molecules always tend to move from high concentration to area of low concentration.

steepness of concentration gradient

temperature

mass of diffusing molecules

surface area

diffusion distance.

passive process

small, uncharged, non polar molecules (O2,CO2) can diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer.

as can small, uncharged, polar molecules (H2O).

passive process

so molecules can only move down their concentration or electrical gradients.

movement across membrane is facilitated by transporters (transmembrane proteins).

too polar

too highly charged

too large

passive process

diffusion of solvent across a selectively permeable membrane.

I.e diffusion of water in biological systems.

water moves from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

Ex. water moves from areas of low solute concentration to area of high solute concentration.

but only if membrane is impermeable to the solute.

the ability of a solution to change the volume of a cell by osmosis.

isotonic solution

hypotonic solution

hypertonic solution

Isotonic

iso=

=same

same concentration of solutes on either side of the membrane.

no net movement

cell does not change volume

Hypotonic solution

hypo=

=less than

solutions has fewer solutes outside of the cell than the cytosol.

water enters faster then cells leaves.

cell swell and may burst (lyse)

Hypertonic solution

hyper=

=more than

solution has more solutes than in the cytosol

water leaves the cell faster than it enters

cell shrink (crenation)

active process

by expending energy, cells can move molecules agaisnt their concentration or electrical gradients.

primary active transport

secondary active transport

energy derived from ATP

energy used to change, shape of transporter (carrier protein), ''pumping'' a molecule across membrane against its concentration gradient.

Ex. sodium potassium pump

Na out of cell

K into cell

two types of transport protein involved in secondary active transport

symporter (sym=same)

move two substance in same direction

antiporter (anti=against)

move two substance in opposite dirrection

Transport in vesicles

active process

vesicles (little bladder)

small spherical sac formed by budding off from an existing membrane.

large molecules of large amounts of substance can move across membrane, ''packaged'' within vesicles.

types of transport in vesicles

(endocytosis)

endo=

=into

movement of substance into cell

types of transport in vesicles

(exocytosis)

exo=

=out

movement of substance out of cell

types of transport in vesicles

(transcytosis)

trans=

=across

movement across cell (endocytosis one side; exo the other)

receptor mediated

phagocytosis

pinocytosis (bulk phase endocytosis)

cell takes select molecules (ligands)

molecules bind to receptor protein on plasma membrane

plasma membrane folds inward and around bound molecules,

folds fuse to create vesicle in cytoplasm

vesicles fuses w/ endosome

molecules seperated from their receptors and are released into cytoplasm.

seen in most body cells.

Phagocytosis

phago=

=to eat

cell engulfs large solid particles

molecules bind to receptor protein on plasma membrane

pseudopods (extension of plasma membrane) fuse to create vesicle (phagosomes) in cytoplasm

seen only in a few types of body cells

E.g macrophages

Pinocytosis

pino=

=to drink

cells engulfs fluid ( and dissovled solutes)

plasma membrane folds inward

no receptor proteins are involved

folds fuse to create vesicles in cytoplasm

seen in most body cells,

esp. absorptive cells such as those of the intestinal lining exocytosis.

used by cell to relase substance to outside envelope

vesicle formed inside cell and fused w/ plasma membrane to release contents

common in nerve cells (released neurotransmitters) and secretary cells ( relased digestive enzymes, hormones mucus.)

plasma membrane (flexible outer surface)

cytoplasm (cyto=cell; plasm=form or molded)

cytosol (liquid portion of cell)

organells (solids portion of cell)

nucleus special organelle that contains genetic info, in form of DNA

all cellular components within plasma membrane, excluding nucleus.

cytosol (intracellular fluid)

55% of cell volume

75-90% water

some metabolic reactions occur in the cytosol

organelles (spec. structures w/ specific functions)

many metabolic reactions ( and enzymes that catalyze them) are confined to specific organelle.

network of protein filaments extending throughout cytosol

composed of

microfilaments

intermediate filaments

microtubules

used by cell to release substance to outside envioment

vesicles formed inside cell and fuses with plasma membrane to release contents

common in:

nerve cells (release neurotransmitters)

secretory cells ( release digestive enzymes, hormone, mucous, etc)

smallest components of cytoskeleton

composed of the protein (actin)

provides structural support for cell

stabilized pos. of nucleus and other organelles within cell

midsized component of cytoskeleton

composed of several different proteins

provide structural support for cell

stabilized pos. of nucleus and other organelles within the cell

largest component of cytoskeleton

composed of protien called (tublin)

tublin molecules arranged to form hollow tubes

determined shape of cell

involved in movements of organelles, chromosomes (during mitosis,cillia, and flagella)

located near the nucleaus

includes two centrioles

aligned at right angles to each other

each centriole composed of

nine cluster of three microtubules  arranged in a circle

organization center for mitotic spindle

mitotic spindle forms during cell division and directs movement of chromosomes pairs during mitosis and meiosis.

composed of microtubules

project from surface of some types of cells

involved in movement of extracellular fluid (cilia) of entire cells (flagella)

cilia/cilium (eyelash)

numerous and short

beat in org. manner

flagella/flagellum (whip)

singular and long

E.g sperm cell

Ribosomes

some=

=body

contain ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

composed of two proteins subunits

large subunit

small subunit

ribosomes found

attached to nuclear membrane or endoplasmic reticulum

free in cytoplasm

in mitochondria

site of protein synthesis

reticulum=network

network of membranes extend throughtout cell

forming flattened sacs or tubules

one end connected to nuclear envelope; other end connected to plasma membrane

two types of ER

rough ER

smooth ER

folded into series of flattend sacs

ribosomes attached to outer surface

protein synthesis by ribosomes are modified inside sacs formed by ER

lack ribosomes

site of synthesis of fatty acids and steroids

and other metabolic functions

detoxifying drugs in liver

relasing CA+2 in muscles to trigger muscle contraction

sarcoplasmic reticulum is form of smooth ER

transport protein throughout cell out to cell surface for secretion

series of flattened membranous sacs (cisternal; cistern=cavities)

collectively in a form of a cup

young cisternae at convex surface formed by transport vesicles from rough ER ( containing proteins synthesized at rough ER)

mature cisternae at concave surface release proteins to cytoplasm or plasma membranes via vesicles

route of a protein from orgin to destination:

synthesizing by ribosome

modified in rough ER

packaged and transported by golgi complex

Lysosomes

lyso=

some=

=dissolving

=body

membrane bound vesicle that form from the golgi complex

contain many diff. digestive enzymes that degrade other molecules.

allows cells to digest nutrients and recycle worn-out proteins and cell structures.

membrane bound organelle

''power house'' of the cell

site of most ATP production

via aerobic respiration

outer mitochondrial membrane

fluid filled space between inner and outer membranes

inner mitochondrial membrane

folded into a number of ridges called cristae

providing a large surface area for chemical reactions of aerobic respiration,

a second fluid-filled space within the inner membrane called the matrix

control center of the cell

most cell have a single nucleus

surrounded by a nulcear envelope

a double membrane composed of two phospholipid bilayers.

nuclear pores allow substance to cross the nuclear envelop (passive or active transport)

contains nucleolus/nucleoli

sites of ribosomes formation

contains genetic information for cell structure and function

encoded in the nucleotide sequence of DNA.