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aaa - Blood
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78
Anatomy
Undergraduate 3
11/03/2010

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Term
blood is specialized connective tissue

blood cells and cell fragments (formed elements)
Definition
Blood is specialized variety of __ ___ in which blood cells and ___ _____ are suspended in a fluid matrix called plasma
Term
formed elements
Definition
cell fragments that are suspended in fluid of matrix called plasma in the blood
Term
hematocrit
Definition
45% of total volume of a blood sample - Erythrocytes/RBCs

low value of this can indicate anemia
Term
buffy coat
Definition
thin grayish-white layer called ___ ___ is present at junction of erythrocytes and plasma in a centrifuge

consists of leukocytes/WBCs and platelets/thrombocytes both of which are formed elements that make up less than 1% of the volume of blood
Term
oxygen rich blood

oxygen poor blood
Definition
scarlet colored (bright red)

dark red
Term
viscosity
Definition
___ of blood is largely due to protein and large number of rbc that it contains
Term
5 liters

7.35 to 7.45
Definition
volume of blood in body is about __ L.

blood normally has pH value between __ and ___

if blood starts to become relatively acidic, the lungs and kidneys provide measure that help restore its normal pH
Term
plasma
Definition
liquid matrix component of blood
approximately 90% water in composition
makes up 55% of blood volume

besides water, solutes are dissolved in it
plasma proteins
electrolytes (ions - Na, K, Ca)
nutrients (glucose, lipids, a.a., etc)
waste products of metabolism (nitrogenous wastes= urea)
respiratory gases (Co2 & O2)
hormones
Term
plasma proteins
Definition
made by liver, include:

albumin
globulins
fibrinogen
Term
albumin
Definition
contributes to osmotic pressure of blood
helps to keep water from diffusing out of bloodstream
Term
globulins
Definition
include gamma globulins/antibodies, which bind to and promote the destruction of antigens (foreign and potentially harmful molecules)
Term
fibrinogen
Definition
main plasma protein involved with clotting of blood
fibrinogen and complex series of chemical reactions that achieves blood clotting/coagulation
Term
serum
Definition
plasma without clotting factors (fibrinogen)
Term
formed elements
Definition
erythrocytes/red blood cells/RBCs - transport oxygen

leukocytes/white blood cells/WBCs - defend against infectious microorganisms

platelets/thrombocytes (fragments, not cells)
provide blood clotting
Term
RBCs
Definition
made in red bone marrow

are anucleated and lack organelles
Term
biconcave disc shape
Definition
RBCs have ___ ___ ___ that provides them with an increased surface area, facilitating diffusion of oxygen into and out of them
Term
hemoglobin

protein molecule
Definition
RBCs transport oxygen via ____ molecules

it's an iron-containing ___ molecule

largely consists of four polypeptide chains of a.a.
it's atoms of mineral element iron to which oxygen specifically binds

via ____, RBCs pick up oxygen in lung capillaries and release it from systemic (body wide) capillaries
Term
iron
Definition
atoms of the mineral element ___ that oxygen specifically binds to within the RBCs
Term
RBCs
Definition
___ greatly outnumber both platelets and WBCs (1000:1)

are a significant factor contributing to the viscosity of blood

5 million ___ per cubic millimeter of blood
Term
100-120 days

liver and spleen

spleen = rbc graveyard
Definition
life span of RBC

old RBC are removed from bloodstream by ___ and ___
which process the remains (iron & hemoglobin) of dead RBCs

___ is sometimes called the red blood cell graveyard
Term
polycythemia


polycythemia vera
Definition
higher than normal number of rbc

one variety, ___ ___ results from cancer of red bone marrow that produces too many erythrocytes

severe ___ causes an abnormal increase in viscosity of blood, slows flow of blood through small blood vessels
Term
reticulocytes
Definition
young/immature RBCs that make up 1-2% of erythrocytes in blood

% of ____ outside this range indicate that person is producing RBCs at accelerated or decreased rate

to detect abnormal alterations in rate of erythrocyte production, Dr sometimes order that a reticulocyte count be performed on a sample of patient's blood

increase or decrease in the % of reticulocytes in blood reflects change in rate of erythrocyte production by red bone marrow
Term
anemia
Definition
involves decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of blood that may be result of too few RBCs or deficient or abnormal hemoglobin in RBCs
Term
types of anemia
Definition
hemolytic
pernicious
aplastic
hemorrhagic
iron deficiency
sickle-cell anemia/disease
Term
hemolytic anemia
Definition
involves decreased number of RBCs b/c of

excessive lysis (rupturing) of RBCs
Term
pernicious anemia
Definition
involves decreased number of RBCs caused by:

a vitamin B12 deficiency that's usually due to lack of stomach-produced intrinsic factor, which is needed for absorption of vitamin B12 by small intestine
Term
aplastic anemia
Definition
involves decreased number of RBCs in assoc w/

suppression or destruction of red bone marrow
Term
iron-deficiency anemia
Definition
involves inability to make enough hemoglobin
Term
sickle-cell anemia/disease
Definition
involves genetic (inherited) defect that leads to the production of abnormal hemoglobin molecules that tend to undergo a change in shape durin gtimes when concentration of oxygen in blood is relatively low (as when one is physically/emotionally stressed)

alteration of shape of hemoglobin molec in RBCs causes them to distort into crescent (sickle) shape

these deformed erythrocytes are prone to rupturing; also, b/c they do not pass through capillaries easily, sickle-shaped RBCs tend to block these tiny blood vessels, causing painful attacks of ischemia (inadequate blood flow)

sickle cell disease/anemia occurs mainly in people of African descent
Term
antigens
Definition
plasma membrane of RBCs that bear genetically determined ____

on person's RBC ___ will be recognized as foreign if transfused into another person's body with different RBC ___.
Term
antibodies
Definition
the "regognizers" of foreign antigens in the plasma

attach to RBCs bearing membrane antigens that are different from those on the recipient's RBCs
Term
agglutination
Definition
When antibodies bind to foreign antigens on foreign RBCs, causes RBCs to clump up called ____
Term
ABO blood groups
Definition
based on 2 types of inherited antigens: A and B

type A blood
Type B blood
Type AB blood
Type O blood
Term
Type A blood
Definition
person has type A antigen on RBC plasma membranes

anti - B antibodies in the plasma
Term
Type B blood
Definition
person has type B antigen on RBC plasma membranes

anti - A antibodies in the plasma
Term
type AB blood
Definition
person has both A & B antigens on RBC plasma membranes
has neither anti A nor anti-B in the plasma
Term
Type O blood
Definition
person has type neither A nor type B antigens on RBC plasma membranes

has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma
Term
Rh factor (Rh antigen)
Definition
presence or absence of __ _____ on person's RBC plasma membranes determines whether positive or negative designation is applied to an individual's blood type
Term
Leukocytes/WBCs
Definition
far less numerous than RBCs; 5000-10000 WBCs per mm^3 of blood

all types made in red bone marrow
some types (lymphocytes and monocytes) are produced in lymphoid glands (lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils)
Term
overall function of WBCs
Definition
help defend body against infectious microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites
Term
diapedesis

amoeboid motion
Definition
are able to exit from tiny blood vessels (capillaries) to attack foreign microorganisms in loose (areolar) connective tissue, where most infections occur

various chemicals released at infection sites attract circulating leukocytes, which leave capillaries via a process called _____, wherein WBCs squeeze between endothelial (simple squamous epithelial) cells that form the walls of capillaries

once outside the capillaries, leukocytes travel to infection sites by ___ ____
Term
red bone marrow
Definition
___ ____ ____ not only produces and continuously releases WBCs, but also stores them

many of these stored leukocytes can be quickly released during serious infections
Term
leukocytosis
Definition
refers to significant increase in number of WBCs (when WBC count exceeds 11,000/mm^3
Term
leukopenia
Definition
abnormally low WBC count that result from excessive use of steroids (cortisone) or from red bone marrow suppression or damage
Term
granulocytes

agranulocytes
Definition
except for the smallest of lymphocytes, all WBCs are larger than RBCs

major groups of WBCs are ________ & _______
Term
granulocytes
Definition
contain granules in their cytoplasm
each such cell has purple-colored, lobed nucleus made of clumps that are joined by thin strands

includes specific kinds of cells:
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
Term
neutrophils
Definition
specific kind of cell in granulocyte

most numerous WBC

have multi-lobed nucleus, because they have more lobes they're sometimes called polymorphonuclear WBCs or polys

contain fine granules that stain pale pink, giving cytoplasm that color

active phagocytes, especially in association with bacterial infections

grandules are similar to large lysosomes, containing digestive enzymes that specifically destroy bacteria
Term
eosinophils
Definition
nucleus usually has 2 lobes (bi-loped)

has granules, cytoplasm is dark pink

role in turning off allergic responses

attack & kill parasites, including parasitic worms
Term
basophils
Definition
least numerous of WBCs (1/200 WBCs)

contain large, very darkly stained (blackish) cytoplasmic granules that can release histamine
Term
histamine
Definition
can be released by cytoplasmic granules within basophils

___ promotes inflammation by causing vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels

this histamine releasing inflammation-mediating function of basophils is almost identical to that of mast cells in loose (areolar) connective tissue
Term
Agranulocytes (agranular leukocytes)
Definition
lack visible cytoplasmic granules and include the following specific types of cells

lymphocytes
monocytes
Term
lymphocytes
Definition
2nd most numerous WBC (behind neutrophils)
usually spherical, dark purple nucleus that occupies most of cell volume, but thin rim of pale blue cytoplasm is usually observable

most are not within bloodstream, but in lymphoid tissue that occurs in walls of digestive & respiratory tracts in lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen

2 varieties of lymphocytes have diff function, different kinds of antigen targets
B cells
T cells
Term
immunity
Definition
lymphocytes are the main cells that provide for ____

each lymphocytes has ability to recognize and act against specific foreign molecule
Term
antigen
Definition
any molecule that induces response from lymphocyte
Term
B cells
Definition
variety of lymphocyte

linked to antibody production b/c their descendants, plasma cells, actually make antibodies

antibodies (gamma goblins) are plasma proteins that bind to specific antigens and mark them for destruction by phagocytosis or other means
Term
T cells
Definition
variety of lymphocytes

cytotoxic/killer T cells directly attack virus-infected cells and tumor cells
and
unfortunately tissue graft cells

cellular targets of T cells are attacked b/c they have antigenic proteins on their surface

cytotoxic t cells directly bind to and lyse (rupture) their cellular targets by "punching" holes in the membranes of the target cells

even though function of B & T cels are quite different, they can't be structurally distinguished with a microscope
Term
tissue graft cells
Definition
cells that have been donated to an individual from someone else

T cells kill them
Term
monocytes
Definition
largest of all WBCs in the bloodstream

look like large lymphocytes on microscope slide of blood, but contain greater proportion of cytoplasm than lymphocytes (cytoplasm is grayish-blue rather than pale blue)

nucleus of monocyte usually has one or more deep indentations and may have horseshoe or kidney shape, rather than spherical shape of lymphocyte nucleus

monocytes become very active phagocytes called macrophages when they exit bloodstream and enter loose connective tissue and lymphoid organs where they phagocytize foreign cells & tiny particles of debris
Term
percentages of leukocytes in blood
Definition
60% neutrophils
30% lymphocytes
6% monocytes
3% eosinophils
0.5% basophils

never let monkeys eat bananas
Term
pus
Definition
dead neutrophils +other WBCs + tissue debris+ bacteria
Term
leukemia
Definition
type of cancer in which huge numbers of abnormal WBCs are rapidly produced

cancerous WBCs are not able to carry out their normal functions, so the affected person is actually more vulnerable to extensive infections even though more WBCs are present

uncontrolled proliferation of cancerous WBCs in red bone marrow crowds out the normal production of platelets & RBCs

patients in late stages of leukemia tend to suffer from bleeding problems (internal hemorrhaging) and anemia

increased risk of leukemia in old age is believed to result from diminished ability of immune system to destroy cancer cells
Term
Platelets / Thrombocytes
Definition
made in red bone marrow

cell fragments (not cells)
platelets are cytoplasmic fragments that form by breaking off big cells in red bone marrow named megakaryocytes

smaller than WBC & RBC appearing as dark purple specks on microscope slides
Term
function of platelets/thrombocytes
Definition
seal/plug small tears in walls of blood vessels to limit bleeding

at site of torn blood vessel, accumulated platelets release substance that helps initiate blood clotting/coagulation

____ do not normally adhere to walls of healthy, intact blood vessels. If the endothelium of intact blood vessel is roughened by scarring, inflammation, atherosclerosis, ___ tend to adhere to altered site and initiate undesirable blood clotting within that vessel
Term
blood clotting/coagulation
Definition
complex sequence of chemical reactions that produces network of fibrin threads (this fibrin is derived from plasma protein, fibrogen
Term
blot clot
Definition
consists of network of fibrin strands plus platelets and blood cells trapped in that network
Term
thrombus
Definition
blood clot that forms and persists in intact blood vessel

if large enough may prevent blood flow to cells beyond blockage

ex) if forms in arteries taht supply heart, consequences may be death of cardiac muscle cells and heart attack

aspirin has anticoagulant effect - recommended for thrombus-prone patients
Term
embolus
Definition
if thrombus or piece of it breaks loose from blood vessel wall and floats freely in bloodstream, it becomes an ____

if breaks away from vein in leg, may end up in coronary artery & cause heart attack
cerebral artery - cause stroke
pumonary blood vessel - pulmonary embolism
Term
blood clots
Definition
most common kind of emboli are ___ ___ but fat emboli can enter blood from yellow bone marrow following fracture of long bone
Term
thrombocytopenia
Definition
abnormally low number of platelets in the blood
characterized by diminished blood clot formaiton and by internal bleeding from small blood vessels

may result from bone marrow suppression or damage, leukemia, overactivity of spleen
Term
spleen
Definition
organ removes platelets and worn-out blood cells from bloodstream and destroys them
Term
Complete Blood Count CBC
Definition
common clinical procedure that quantifies the various blood cells and measures some basica aspects of blood chemistry, providing a preliminary assessment of patient's health

blood is drawn, measure hematocrit, hemoglobin content, # of RBCs, WBCs, platelets per cubic mm^3 of blood
Term
red bone marrow
Definition
all 3 major types of blood's formed elements are made in the ___ ____ ____

located within spongey bone of several bones (hip bones, sternum, ribs, skull bones, ends/epiphyses of some long bones)
Term
lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen)
Definition
WBCs (lymphocytes and monocytes) are also produced in ___ ___ (besides red bone marrow)
Term
reticular connective tissue

sinusoids
Definition
basic framework of red bone marrow is ___ ____ ____ in which reticular fibers form network in which immature blood cells are suspended. Running through reticular connective tissue are numerous wide capillaries called _____.

as forming blood cells reach maturity they continuously enter bloodstream by migrating into nearby _____ by squeezing between endothelial (simple squamous) cells that compose walls of vessels
Term
stem cell

pluripotential hematopoietic stem cell

hemocytoblast
Definition
all types of formed elements (RBC, WBC, platelets) arise from a type of ___ ____ in red bone marrow that's called ____ ____ ___ ___ or simply hemocytoblast
Term
hemocytoblast
Definition
another name for pleuripotential hematopoietic stem cell
Term
erythropoietin


kidneys
Definition
rate of RBC production by red bone marrow is stimulated by _____ which is produced and secreted in the _____
Term
bone marrow biopsy
Definition
when red bone marrow problems are suspected (leukemia, aplastic anemia) , sometimes special needle is used to withdraw small sample of marrow from sternum or the ilium of the hip bone.

procedure is called __ ___ ___ and provides cells for microscopic examination
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