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A&P exam 1
N/A
152
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
10/01/2014

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Term
What is the by-product of any energy conversion process?
Definition
Heat.
Term
A solution with a pH of 4 would have ____ times fewer hydrogen ions than a solution with a pH of 2?
Definition
100
Term
What is a salt?
Definition
a molecule that separates into ions in solution, and neither of those ions is a hydrogen or a hydroxide.
Term
What bond binds water molecules with other water molecules?
Definition
Hydrogen bond.
Term
What property of water makes it useful for regulating human body temperature?
Definition
High heat capacity.
Term
What are isomers?
Definition
molecules with the same atoms bit a different three-dimensional configuration.
Term
What process is typically used to assemble organic molecules?
Definition
Dehydration synthesis.
Term
What are the predominant type of fatty acids produced by plants?
Definition
Unsaturated fatty acids.
Term
What type of bonds do unsaturated fatty acids typically contain several of ?
Definition
Double covalent bonds.
Term
Are phospholipids polar?
Definition
typically.
Term
are triglycerides polar?
Definition
no, they are neutral.
Term
how many of the 91 naturally occuring elements have normal physiological roles in humans?
Definition
24
Term
98.5% of the human body's weight can be accounted for by which 6 elements?
Definition
Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), and Phosphorous (P)
Term
define atom
Definition
the smallest stable units of matter
Term
what is the valence shell?
Definition
the outermost elctron shell
Term
what is the octet rule?
Definition
each atom seeks 8 valence electrons to be stable.
Term
how do isotopes differ from one another?
Definition
each isotopes nucleus has the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Term
what does the atomic number refer to?
Definition
The numner of protons in the nucleus.
Term
what does the atomic mass number refer to?
Definition
the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Term
Are ionic bonds or covalent bonds more stable in the fluid environment of the body?
Definition
Covalent bonds are more stable, because they do not dissolve in water like ionic bonds do.
Term
What are ionic bonds?
Definition
when unstable ions swap electrons to produce two stable ions. protons and electrons are drawn to one another by electromagnetic force.
Term
what are covalent bonds?
Definition
atoms share electrons instead of gaining or losing them.
Term
which sub-atomic particle most influences the tendency of an atom to form compounds?
Definition
electrons
Term
a compound_____?
Definition
contains atoms of different elements.
Term
how could an atom become positive?
Definition
by losing electrons.
Term
What does electron sharing mean?
Definition
The shared electons orbot both nuclei.
Term
What is a polar covalent bond?
Definition
the shared electron(s) spend more time orbiting one atom's nucleus than another.
Term
what is a double covalent bond?
Definition
atoms share two pairs of electrons.
Term
what are some uses of ionic bonds in the body?
Definition
substances which need to be dissolved in bodily fluids: enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, transport.
Term
why are covalent bonds useful in the human body?
Definition
they are potential sources of energy because they can be broken down to release energy.
Term
what is a free radical?
Definition
molecules with unpaired electrons.
Term
Where do free radicals come from?
Definition
environment, and are also natural leftovers from normal body processes.
Term
why are free radicals bad?
Definition
in their quest to find another electron, they are very reactive and cause damage to surrounding molecules. cell deterioration and oxidation.
Term
how does the body protect itself from free radicals?
Definition
antioxidants seek out free radicals and provide them with electrons, rendering them neutral and harmless. Cascade reaction: free radical-vitamin e-beta carotene-vitamin c. <-rapidly eliminated.
Term
What are the building blocks of proteins?
Definition
Amino acids
Term
what are the building blocks of nucleic acids?
Definition
Nucleotides + phosphate group
+ 5 carbon sugar + nitrogenous base
Term
What are the building blocks of lipids?
Definition
Glycerol + fatty acids
Term
What are the building blocks of carbohydrates?
Definition
monosaccharides.
Term
What is a solvent?
Definition
the liquid in which the substance (solute) was dissolved.
Term
what is a solute?
Definition
the substance which was dissolved
Term
what is a solution
Definition
solute + solvent= solution
Term
What is a hydrogen bond?
Definition
positive charges on hydrogen atoms in a molecule are attracted to negative charges on other polar molecules and form a bond.
Term
What is an acid?
Definition
any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions, lowering the pH. AKA proton doner/hydrogen ion donor.
Term
what is a base?
Definition
removes hydroxide ions from a solution. Accepts hydrogen ions and removes them from the solution. proton acceptor.
Term
What is a salt?
Definition
an ionic compount that dissolves in water and does not produce hydrogen or hydroxide ions.
Term
on the pH scale, which range is considered acidic?
Definition
below 7
Term
on a pH scale, what range is considered basic?
Definition
above 7
Term
How does the pH scale work in terms of Hydrogen ions?
Definition
the lower the pH number, the more hydrogen ions.
Term
define metabolism
Definition
all of the reactions occurring in the cells and tissues of the body at any given moment.
Term
define catabolism
Definition
the decomposition reactions of complex molecules within the body's cells and tissues which release energy. decomposition, does not require energy because it releases energy.
Term
define anabolism
Definition
synthesis of new molecules within the body's cells and tissues. energy storage. anabolic. requires energy.
Term
what is an exchange or displacement reaction?
Definition
when parts of molecules are rearranged to produce new products.
Term
What determines the direction in which a reversible reaction would most likely proceed?
Definition
number of reactants.
Term
what are 3 factors that can influence the rate of a chemical reaction?
Definition
-number of reactants (more reactants, more reactions.)
-temperature (higher temp, faster reactions)
-catalysts (speed up reaction)
Term
what are the four main categories of organic molecules?
Definition
-carbohydrates
-lipids
-proteins
-nucleic acids
Term
what is a functional group of atoms?
Definition
a small group of atoms which help to determine how a molecule behaves with other molecules.
Term
what are the 5 common functional groups of atoms commonly found on organic molecules?
Definition
hydroxyl group (OH)
methyl group(CH3)
carboxyl group(COOH)
amino group (NH2)
phosphate group(H2PO4)
Term
What are 5 monosaccharides important to the human body?
Definition
glucose (C6H12O6)
ribose (C5H10O5)
deoxyribose (C5H10O3)
fructose (C6H12O6)
galactose (C6H12O6)
Term
what are isomers?
Definition
molecules that have the same types and numbers (same formula) but are arranged differently.
Term
3 important disaccharides
Definition
-sucrose
-lactose
-maltose
Term
3 important polysaccharides
Definition
-starch
-cellulose
-glycogen (made by humans)
Term
what is a conjugated carbohydrate?
Definition
carbohydrate which is covalently bonded to a protein or lipid.
-glycolipids
-glycoproteins
-proteoglycans
Term
what is the glycocalyx used for?
Definition
cell recognition, binding, and lubrication of cell surfaces. comprised of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans.
Term
what is the difference between saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids?
Definition
-saturated fatty acids are completely saturated with hydrogen
unsaturated fatty acids are not because one or more of the single covalent bonds between carbon atoms has been replaced with a double covalent bond.
Term
3 functions of neutral lipids in the body
Definition
-store energy (twice as much as carbs)
-transport
-insulation
-shock absorption
Term
differences in unsaturated fats, hydrogenated unsaturated fats, trans fats, saturated fats, and omega 3s.
Definition
unsat fats-found in nature, not totally saturated with h+
hyd. unsat fats- not found in nature. h+ added to them, increasing saturation.
trans fats- sat fats taht have one or more double bonds. uncommon in nature/
sat fats-from animals, totally sat with h+
omega 3-contain more than one double bond , with one double bond at the third from last carbon atom in the chain, regardless of the rest of the chain's composition. found in plants.
Term
how are fatty acids structured?
Definition
each has a carboxyl group at the "head" end, and a methyl chain at the tail end.
Term
2 functions of phospholipids in the body
Definition
basic foundation for cells and many of their contained structures.
can be broken down for energy.
Term
What are eicosanoids?
Definition
lipids with 20 carbons in a ring.
signalling molecules, stimulate contractions, lower blood pressure...
Term
What is the difference in chemical structures of steroids and neutral lipids?
Definition
Cholesterol is the parent molecule of steroids, which contain 4 fused carbon rings. Neutral lipids are long chains. both are hydrophobic.
Term
what is the main molecule from which steroids are produced?
Definition
CHOLESTEROL
Term
how do PEPTIDE BONDS form between amino acids?
Definition
the carboxyl group of one amino acid covalently bonds to the amino group of another amino acid using dehydration synthesis.
Term
what are the levels of structure that determine a protein's conformation?
Definition
primary-amino acid chain
secondary-hydrogen bonds among acids in chain, creating alpha helix or beta sheet.
tertiary- coiling and folding
quaternary- not in all proteins, individual polypeptide chaings form a protein complex. hemoglobin.
Term
why is conformation important?
Definition
a protein's function is determined by its shape, and it's shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids.
Term
what is energy of activation?
Definition
the energy required to begin the chemical reaction
Term
how do enzymes affect the energy of activation?
Definition
enzymes lower the energy of activation.
Term
what 2 common factors can change the shapeof the active site of an enzyme?
Definition
pH, temp
Term
contrast a cofactor and a co-enzyme
Definition
cofactors are essential molecules or (usually) ions atached to enyzems in order for the enzyme to catalyze a reaction. they can be organic or inorganic. Coenzymes are types of cofactors (which can't be proteins) which are smaller than the enzyme. they are Organic.
Organic cofactors are coenzymes.
Term
what is a substrate?
Definition
the substance an enzyme acts upon
Term
how does an enzyme work?
Definition
1)substrate approaches active site forming enzyme-substrate complex LOCK AND KEY
2)Enzyme breaks covalent bonds between monomers in substrate
3)reaction prodcuts released
4) enzyme remains unchanged and is ready to repeat the process.
Term
ONE ENZYME MOLECULE CAN CONSUME MILLIONS OF SUBSTRATE MOLECULES PER MINUTE
Definition
Term
3 functions of plasma membranes in the body
Definition
-isolates cells from their interstitial fluid environments
-regulate exchanges between cells and their environments
-provides structural support to cells
-protection from toxins/bacteria in interstitial fluid
-GOVERNS INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CELLS
Term
what are some structural characteristics of molecules that can affect their ability to pass through membranes.
Definition
-water solubility
-charge (neutral easiest)
-size
Term
6 roles of membrane proteins
Definition
-cell communication-sensors and receptors
-energy conversion
-enzymes
-membrane/cell adhesion
-cell-cell recognition
-attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
Term
what is filtration?
Definition
pressure forces substances to pass through a membrane.
Term
what is a concentration gradient?
Definition
a difference in chemical concentration from one point to another, as on two sides of a plasma membrane.
Term
what is net diffusion?
Definition
the movement of molecules resulting from their spontaneous thermal vibration (kinetic energy). Net diffusion reflects the end result of such movement in a closed structure. MOLECULES DIFFUSE DOWN THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT.
Term
identify 3 chemical substances critical to cell function that cross cell membranes through diffusion
Definition
-water
-oxygen
-glucose
Term
does diffusion require energy?
Definition
NO
Term
what is osmosis?
Definition
the movement of water from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concenration.
Term
under what conditions will osmosis occur?
Definition
1) a way to move
2) water concentration gradient.
Term
does osmosis requre energy to occur?
Definition
NO
Term
define isotonic
Definition
equal amounts of solute and solvent.
Term
define hypertonic
Definition
high amounts of solutes in outside cell soultion, causes osmosis OUT of the cell.
Term
Define hypotonic
Definition
low concentration of solutes in outside cell solution. causes osmosis INTO the cell.
Term
what can cause pressure inside a cell to increase?
Definition
when the solute concentration inside the cells is higher than the outide concentrations, osmosis brings water into the cell, raising the pressure inside.
Term
define lysed-
Definition
cell bursted
Term
define crenated
Definition
cell dehydrated.
Term
define carrier molecule
Definition
proteins located within the cell membrane which transport molecules that are too large or insoluble through the membrane to the other side of the cell, outside/inside.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Term
what are types of active transport?
Definition
uniport, symport, antiport
Term
what does saturation mean in regards to carrier molecules?
Definition
the transport proteins can't go any faster.
Term
does facilitated diffusion require energy to occur?
Definition
NO. depends on the concentration gradient.
Term
does active transport require energy to occur?
Definition
YES. allows a cell to import/export things regardless of concentration.
Term
what is primary active transport?
Definition
uses ATP to facilitate transport with or against concentration gradient.
Term
what is secondary active transport?
Definition
follows an existing concentration gradient for one of two substances transported (usually sodium ions) so it doesn't require energy.
Term
what is phagocytosis?
Definition
cell eating. cell extensions (pseudopodia) surround a molecule. they then seal up the molecule inside, forming a phagosome, which then fuses with many lysosomes that digest the molecule. Nutrients released in digestion diffuse intot he surrounding cytoplasm, and any waste is ejected through exocytosis. Ex. WHITE BLOOD CELLS
Term
what is endocytosis?
Definition
vesicles form at the cell surface and import marterials to the cell. Certain materials bind to receptors, them vesicles form.
Term
what is pinocytosis?
Definition
deep grooves/pockets form and then pinch off and enter the cytoplasm and exit the other side. Typically fluid.
Term
what does cytoplasm consist of?
Definition
cytosol, organelles, and cytoskeleton.
Term
what does the mitochondria do?
Definition
powerhouse of cell, creates ATP
Term
what does the endoplasmic reticulum do?
Definition
receive and modify molecules,
Term
what does the golgi apparatus do?
Definition
post office- modifies, sorts, packages, and sends out proteins.
Term
what do ribosomes do?
Definition
reading machines, 2 pieces come together to read genetic messages from mRNA.
Term
what are microfilaments?
Definition
compose cytoskeleton,
Term
what are microtubules?
Definition
hollow protein cylinders radiating from the centrosomes. move organelles and macromolecules.
Term
what are centrosome/centrioles?
Definition
area in cytoplasm near nucleus, holds two centrioles, which are 9 groups of microtubule triplets forming a short cylinder.
Term
what are two other molecules important to the human body that belong in the nucleic acid category?
Definition
ATP (adenosine 5-triphosphate)
cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate)
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
NAD (Nicotinomide adenine dinucleotide)
Term
why is ATP a better source of energy than other molecules like glucose?
Definition
ATP is everywherein the cytoplasm, and every part of the cell can pop off a phosphate in one step and release that bond's energy. Glucose can't be used directly; it requires a specific location and more steps.
Term
how are DNA and RNA molecules constructed?
Definition
A linear sugar covalently bonded to phosphate covalentely bonded to sugar with nitrogenous bases projecting to one side.
Term
what type of bond holds DNA nucleotides together?
Definition
hydrogen
Term
what is the process of transcription?
Definition
-unwind section of DNA
-Unzip that section
-RNA polymerase attaches to template strand
-RNA nucleotides h bond to DNA nucleotides, each RNA nucleotide covalently bonds to another
-RNA nucleotide strand separates
-DNA nucleotides zip back up
Term
where does rRNA go after transcription?
Definition
stays in nucleolus
Term
where does tRNA go after transcription?
Definition
cytoplasm.
Term
where does mRNA go after transcription?
Definition
edited before leaving nucleus into cytoplasm.
Term
where do RNA nucleotides come from
Definition
most are leftover (snipped) pieces of nucleotides in the nucleus. Some are digested.
Term
what are exons?
Definition
reassembled RNA nucleotides that leave the nucleus.
Term
what is mRNA?
Definition
blueprint that directs the order of amino acids.
Term
What is tRNA
Definition
grabs and carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome that binds to mRNA codods in the cytoplasm to perform translation.
Term
what is rRNA?
Definition
formed in nucleus, provides binding sites , and functions in the cytoplasm.
Term
steps of translation
Definition
-small subunit of ribosome attaches to mRNA start codon
-large subunit of ribosome joins and pulls mRNA along to read it
-small subunit of ribosome binds activated tRNA with corresponding anticodon
-large subunit enzyme forms peptide bond
-next codon read, next tRNA attached, amino acids joined, first tRNA released, etc.
process ends when stop codon reached.
Term
what happens to a newly translated protein?
Definition
in postranslational modification, a newly translated amino acid chain is controlled by chaperone proteins and beings to fold. when the polypeptide chain needs further modification, it is typically sent to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and then to the golgi apparatus to have carbohydrate chains, lipiids, or other non protein substances added.
Term
how can changes in a cell's DNA result in a change in the activity of the protein that is produced?
Definition
bad triplet--bad codon--bad anticodon--bad amino acid--improper folding--useless protein.
Term
what is the basic structure of tRNA?
Definition
binding site for an amino acid at one end, bases folded inside with 3 exposed bases (anticodon) at the other end.
Term
what is a peptidase?
Definition
an enzyme that creates peptide bonds (covalent bonds between amino acids formed by dehydration synthesis)
Term
what is the anabolic component of glucose catabolism?
Definition
when ADP combines with phosphate groups to create ATP.
Term
what is the catabolic component of glucose catabolism?
Definition
Oxygen is a reactant in the catabolic component and CO2 is a product.
Term
Why is glucose most effective?
Definition
requires the least amount of energy to create ATP.
Term
how much ATP is broken down in glycolysis?
Definition
2 ATP
Term
how much ATP is created in glycolysis
Definition
4 ATP. (net 2 ATP)
Term
where is most ATP generated?
Definition
in the mitochondria
Term
what are matrix reactions?
Definition
2 pyruvic acid molecules created in glycolysis are broken down into CO2, and hydrogen is picked up by H acceptors, 2 ATP created.
Term
what is an acetyl group
Definition
intermediate step between glycolysis and matrix reactions. all food ingested is converted into acetyl groups.
Term
where does pyruvic acid go when oxygen is present?
Definition
mitochondria
Term
what process occurs when there is no oxygen present in the cell?
Definition
anaerobic fermentation
Term
what is anaerobic fermentation?
Definition
pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which can be moved into the blood (pyruvic acid can't be moved outside the cell)
Term
3 different patterns of mitotic activity in the human adult
Definition
-cells that undergo continual mitosis, need to be replaced often, like skin, bone marrow, etc
-cells that fluctuate- sometimes divide, mostly don't. Liver cells
-cells that do not divide after being formed. muscles cells, neurons
Term
what are stem cells?
Definition
cells which can create infinite numbers of different kinds of cells.
Term
what is cytokinesis?
Definition
cytoplasmic movement that separates two daughter cells at the end of mitosis
Term
what is the G1 phase?
Definition
cell prepares for division by growing, duplicating organelles, and protein synthesis.
Term
what is the s phase?
Definition
DNA replication, synthesis of histones
Term
G2 phase?
Definition
last-minute protein syntehsis and centriole replication completion
Term
what is a histone?
Definition
spools around which DNA coils
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