Term
| What is the by-product of any energy conversion process? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A solution with a pH of 4 would have ____ times fewer hydrogen ions than a solution with a pH of 2? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a molecule that separates into ions in solution, and neither of those ions is a hydrogen or a hydroxide. |
|
|
Term
| What bond binds water molecules with other water molecules? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What property of water makes it useful for regulating human body temperature? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules with the same atoms bit a different three-dimensional configuration. |
|
|
Term
| What process is typically used to assemble organic molecules? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the predominant type of fatty acids produced by plants? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of bonds do unsaturated fatty acids typically contain several of ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many of the 91 naturally occuring elements have normal physiological roles in humans? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 98.5% of the human body's weight can be accounted for by which 6 elements? |
|
Definition
| Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), Calcium (Ca), and Phosphorous (P) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the smallest stable units of matter |
|
|
Term
| what is the valence shell? |
|
Definition
| the outermost elctron shell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| each atom seeks 8 valence electrons to be stable. |
|
|
Term
| how do isotopes differ from one another? |
|
Definition
| each isotopes nucleus has the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. |
|
|
Term
| what does the atomic number refer to? |
|
Definition
| The numner of protons in the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| what does the atomic mass number refer to? |
|
Definition
| the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| Are ionic bonds or covalent bonds more stable in the fluid environment of the body? |
|
Definition
| Covalent bonds are more stable, because they do not dissolve in water like ionic bonds do. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when unstable ions swap electrons to produce two stable ions. protons and electrons are drawn to one another by electromagnetic force. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| atoms share electrons instead of gaining or losing them. |
|
|
Term
| which sub-atomic particle most influences the tendency of an atom to form compounds? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contains atoms of different elements. |
|
|
Term
| how could an atom become positive? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does electron sharing mean? |
|
Definition
| The shared electons orbot both nuclei. |
|
|
Term
| What is a polar covalent bond? |
|
Definition
| the shared electron(s) spend more time orbiting one atom's nucleus than another. |
|
|
Term
| what is a double covalent bond? |
|
Definition
| atoms share two pairs of electrons. |
|
|
Term
| what are some uses of ionic bonds in the body? |
|
Definition
| substances which need to be dissolved in bodily fluids: enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, transport. |
|
|
Term
| why are covalent bonds useful in the human body? |
|
Definition
| they are potential sources of energy because they can be broken down to release energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules with unpaired electrons. |
|
|
Term
| Where do free radicals come from? |
|
Definition
| environment, and are also natural leftovers from normal body processes. |
|
|
Term
| why are free radicals bad? |
|
Definition
| in their quest to find another electron, they are very reactive and cause damage to surrounding molecules. cell deterioration and oxidation. |
|
|
Term
| how does the body protect itself from free radicals? |
|
Definition
| antioxidants seek out free radicals and provide them with electrons, rendering them neutral and harmless. Cascade reaction: free radical-vitamin e-beta carotene-vitamin c. <-rapidly eliminated. |
|
|
Term
| What are the building blocks of proteins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the building blocks of nucleic acids? |
|
Definition
Nucleotides + phosphate group
+ 5 carbon sugar + nitrogenous base |
|
|
Term
| What are the building blocks of lipids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the building blocks of carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the liquid in which the substance (solute) was dissolved. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the substance which was dissolved |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| solute + solvent= solution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| positive charges on hydrogen atoms in a molecule are attracted to negative charges on other polar molecules and form a bond. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions, lowering the pH. AKA proton doner/hydrogen ion donor. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| removes hydroxide ions from a solution. Accepts hydrogen ions and removes them from the solution. proton acceptor. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ionic compount that dissolves in water and does not produce hydrogen or hydroxide ions. |
|
|
Term
| on the pH scale, which range is considered acidic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| on a pH scale, what range is considered basic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does the pH scale work in terms of Hydrogen ions? |
|
Definition
| the lower the pH number, the more hydrogen ions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all of the reactions occurring in the cells and tissues of the body at any given moment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the decomposition reactions of complex molecules within the body's cells and tissues which release energy. decomposition, does not require energy because it releases energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesis of new molecules within the body's cells and tissues. energy storage. anabolic. requires energy. |
|
|
Term
| what is an exchange or displacement reaction? |
|
Definition
| when parts of molecules are rearranged to produce new products. |
|
|
Term
| What determines the direction in which a reversible reaction would most likely proceed? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are 3 factors that can influence the rate of a chemical reaction? |
|
Definition
-number of reactants (more reactants, more reactions.)
-temperature (higher temp, faster reactions)
-catalysts (speed up reaction) |
|
|
Term
| what are the four main categories of organic molecules? |
|
Definition
-carbohydrates
-lipids
-proteins
-nucleic acids |
|
|
Term
| what is a functional group of atoms? |
|
Definition
| a small group of atoms which help to determine how a molecule behaves with other molecules. |
|
|
Term
| what are the 5 common functional groups of atoms commonly found on organic molecules? |
|
Definition
hydroxyl group (OH)
methyl group(CH3)
carboxyl group(COOH)
amino group (NH2)
phosphate group(H2PO4) |
|
|
Term
| What are 5 monosaccharides important to the human body? |
|
Definition
glucose (C6H12O6)
ribose (C5H10O5)
deoxyribose (C5H10O3)
fructose (C6H12O6)
galactose (C6H12O6) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules that have the same types and numbers (same formula) but are arranged differently. |
|
|
Term
| 3 important disaccharides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 important polysaccharides |
|
Definition
-starch
-cellulose
-glycogen (made by humans) |
|
|
Term
| what is a conjugated carbohydrate? |
|
Definition
carbohydrate which is covalently bonded to a protein or lipid.
-glycolipids
-glycoproteins
-proteoglycans |
|
|
Term
| what is the glycocalyx used for? |
|
Definition
| cell recognition, binding, and lubrication of cell surfaces. comprised of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. |
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids? |
|
Definition
-saturated fatty acids are completely saturated with hydrogen
unsaturated fatty acids are not because one or more of the single covalent bonds between carbon atoms has been replaced with a double covalent bond. |
|
|
Term
| 3 functions of neutral lipids in the body |
|
Definition
-store energy (twice as much as carbs)
-transport
-insulation
-shock absorption |
|
|
Term
| differences in unsaturated fats, hydrogenated unsaturated fats, trans fats, saturated fats, and omega 3s. |
|
Definition
unsat fats-found in nature, not totally saturated with h+
hyd. unsat fats- not found in nature. h+ added to them, increasing saturation.
trans fats- sat fats taht have one or more double bonds. uncommon in nature/
sat fats-from animals, totally sat with h+
omega 3-contain more than one double bond , with one double bond at the third from last carbon atom in the chain, regardless of the rest of the chain's composition. found in plants. |
|
|
Term
| how are fatty acids structured? |
|
Definition
| each has a carboxyl group at the "head" end, and a methyl chain at the tail end. |
|
|
Term
| 2 functions of phospholipids in the body |
|
Definition
basic foundation for cells and many of their contained structures.
can be broken down for energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
lipids with 20 carbons in a ring.
signalling molecules, stimulate contractions, lower blood pressure... |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference in chemical structures of steroids and neutral lipids? |
|
Definition
| Cholesterol is the parent molecule of steroids, which contain 4 fused carbon rings. Neutral lipids are long chains. both are hydrophobic. |
|
|
Term
| what is the main molecule from which steroids are produced? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do PEPTIDE BONDS form between amino acids? |
|
Definition
| the carboxyl group of one amino acid covalently bonds to the amino group of another amino acid using dehydration synthesis. |
|
|
Term
| what are the levels of structure that determine a protein's conformation? |
|
Definition
primary-amino acid chain
secondary-hydrogen bonds among acids in chain, creating alpha helix or beta sheet.
tertiary- coiling and folding
quaternary- not in all proteins, individual polypeptide chaings form a protein complex. hemoglobin. |
|
|
Term
| why is conformation important? |
|
Definition
| a protein's function is determined by its shape, and it's shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. |
|
|
Term
| what is energy of activation? |
|
Definition
| the energy required to begin the chemical reaction |
|
|
Term
| how do enzymes affect the energy of activation? |
|
Definition
| enzymes lower the energy of activation. |
|
|
Term
| what 2 common factors can change the shapeof the active site of an enzyme? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| contrast a cofactor and a co-enzyme |
|
Definition
cofactors are essential molecules or (usually) ions atached to enyzems in order for the enzyme to catalyze a reaction. they can be organic or inorganic. Coenzymes are types of cofactors (which can't be proteins) which are smaller than the enzyme. they are Organic.
Organic cofactors are coenzymes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the substance an enzyme acts upon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1)substrate approaches active site forming enzyme-substrate complex LOCK AND KEY
2)Enzyme breaks covalent bonds between monomers in substrate
3)reaction prodcuts released
4) enzyme remains unchanged and is ready to repeat the process. |
|
|
Term
| ONE ENZYME MOLECULE CAN CONSUME MILLIONS OF SUBSTRATE MOLECULES PER MINUTE |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 functions of plasma membranes in the body |
|
Definition
-isolates cells from their interstitial fluid environments
-regulate exchanges between cells and their environments
-provides structural support to cells
-protection from toxins/bacteria in interstitial fluid
-GOVERNS INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CELLS |
|
|
Term
| what are some structural characteristics of molecules that can affect their ability to pass through membranes. |
|
Definition
-water solubility
-charge (neutral easiest)
-size |
|
|
Term
| 6 roles of membrane proteins |
|
Definition
-cell communication-sensors and receptors
-energy conversion
-enzymes
-membrane/cell adhesion
-cell-cell recognition
-attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pressure forces substances to pass through a membrane. |
|
|
Term
| what is a concentration gradient? |
|
Definition
| a difference in chemical concentration from one point to another, as on two sides of a plasma membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the movement of molecules resulting from their spontaneous thermal vibration (kinetic energy). Net diffusion reflects the end result of such movement in a closed structure. MOLECULES DIFFUSE DOWN THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT. |
|
|
Term
| identify 3 chemical substances critical to cell function that cross cell membranes through diffusion |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does diffusion require energy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the movement of water from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concenration. |
|
|
Term
| under what conditions will osmosis occur? |
|
Definition
1) a way to move
2) water concentration gradient. |
|
|
Term
| does osmosis requre energy to occur? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| equal amounts of solute and solvent. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| high amounts of solutes in outside cell soultion, causes osmosis OUT of the cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| low concentration of solutes in outside cell solution. causes osmosis INTO the cell. |
|
|
Term
| what can cause pressure inside a cell to increase? |
|
Definition
| when the solute concentration inside the cells is higher than the outide concentrations, osmosis brings water into the cell, raising the pressure inside. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
proteins located within the cell membrane which transport molecules that are too large or insoluble through the membrane to the other side of the cell, outside/inside.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION |
|
|
Term
| what are types of active transport? |
|
Definition
| uniport, symport, antiport |
|
|
Term
| what does saturation mean in regards to carrier molecules? |
|
Definition
| the transport proteins can't go any faster. |
|
|
Term
| does facilitated diffusion require energy to occur? |
|
Definition
| NO. depends on the concentration gradient. |
|
|
Term
| does active transport require energy to occur? |
|
Definition
| YES. allows a cell to import/export things regardless of concentration. |
|
|
Term
| what is primary active transport? |
|
Definition
| uses ATP to facilitate transport with or against concentration gradient. |
|
|
Term
| what is secondary active transport? |
|
Definition
| follows an existing concentration gradient for one of two substances transported (usually sodium ions) so it doesn't require energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell eating. cell extensions (pseudopodia) surround a molecule. they then seal up the molecule inside, forming a phagosome, which then fuses with many lysosomes that digest the molecule. Nutrients released in digestion diffuse intot he surrounding cytoplasm, and any waste is ejected through exocytosis. Ex. WHITE BLOOD CELLS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| vesicles form at the cell surface and import marterials to the cell. Certain materials bind to receptors, them vesicles form. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deep grooves/pockets form and then pinch off and enter the cytoplasm and exit the other side. Typically fluid. |
|
|
Term
| what does cytoplasm consist of? |
|
Definition
| cytosol, organelles, and cytoskeleton. |
|
|
Term
| what does the mitochondria do? |
|
Definition
| powerhouse of cell, creates ATP |
|
|
Term
| what does the endoplasmic reticulum do? |
|
Definition
| receive and modify molecules, |
|
|
Term
| what does the golgi apparatus do? |
|
Definition
| post office- modifies, sorts, packages, and sends out proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reading machines, 2 pieces come together to read genetic messages from mRNA. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hollow protein cylinders radiating from the centrosomes. move organelles and macromolecules. |
|
|
Term
| what are centrosome/centrioles? |
|
Definition
| area in cytoplasm near nucleus, holds two centrioles, which are 9 groups of microtubule triplets forming a short cylinder. |
|
|
Term
| what are two other molecules important to the human body that belong in the nucleic acid category? |
|
Definition
ATP (adenosine 5-triphosphate)
cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate)
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
NAD (Nicotinomide adenine dinucleotide) |
|
|
Term
| why is ATP a better source of energy than other molecules like glucose? |
|
Definition
| ATP is everywherein the cytoplasm, and every part of the cell can pop off a phosphate in one step and release that bond's energy. Glucose can't be used directly; it requires a specific location and more steps. |
|
|
Term
| how are DNA and RNA molecules constructed? |
|
Definition
| A linear sugar covalently bonded to phosphate covalentely bonded to sugar with nitrogenous bases projecting to one side. |
|
|
Term
| what type of bond holds DNA nucleotides together? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the process of transcription? |
|
Definition
-unwind section of DNA
-Unzip that section
-RNA polymerase attaches to template strand
-RNA nucleotides h bond to DNA nucleotides, each RNA nucleotide covalently bonds to another
-RNA nucleotide strand separates
-DNA nucleotides zip back up |
|
|
Term
| where does rRNA go after transcription? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where does tRNA go after transcription? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where does mRNA go after transcription? |
|
Definition
| edited before leaving nucleus into cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
| where do RNA nucleotides come from |
|
Definition
| most are leftover (snipped) pieces of nucleotides in the nucleus. Some are digested. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reassembled RNA nucleotides that leave the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blueprint that directs the order of amino acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| grabs and carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome that binds to mRNA codods in the cytoplasm to perform translation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| formed in nucleus, provides binding sites , and functions in the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-small subunit of ribosome attaches to mRNA start codon
-large subunit of ribosome joins and pulls mRNA along to read it
-small subunit of ribosome binds activated tRNA with corresponding anticodon
-large subunit enzyme forms peptide bond
-next codon read, next tRNA attached, amino acids joined, first tRNA released, etc.
process ends when stop codon reached. |
|
|
Term
| what happens to a newly translated protein? |
|
Definition
| in postranslational modification, a newly translated amino acid chain is controlled by chaperone proteins and beings to fold. when the polypeptide chain needs further modification, it is typically sent to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and then to the golgi apparatus to have carbohydrate chains, lipiids, or other non protein substances added. |
|
|
Term
| how can changes in a cell's DNA result in a change in the activity of the protein that is produced? |
|
Definition
| bad triplet--bad codon--bad anticodon--bad amino acid--improper folding--useless protein. |
|
|
Term
| what is the basic structure of tRNA? |
|
Definition
| binding site for an amino acid at one end, bases folded inside with 3 exposed bases (anticodon) at the other end. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an enzyme that creates peptide bonds (covalent bonds between amino acids formed by dehydration synthesis) |
|
|
Term
| what is the anabolic component of glucose catabolism? |
|
Definition
| when ADP combines with phosphate groups to create ATP. |
|
|
Term
| what is the catabolic component of glucose catabolism? |
|
Definition
| Oxygen is a reactant in the catabolic component and CO2 is a product. |
|
|
Term
| Why is glucose most effective? |
|
Definition
| requires the least amount of energy to create ATP. |
|
|
Term
| how much ATP is broken down in glycolysis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how much ATP is created in glycolysis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is most ATP generated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are matrix reactions? |
|
Definition
| 2 pyruvic acid molecules created in glycolysis are broken down into CO2, and hydrogen is picked up by H acceptors, 2 ATP created. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| intermediate step between glycolysis and matrix reactions. all food ingested is converted into acetyl groups. |
|
|
Term
| where does pyruvic acid go when oxygen is present? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what process occurs when there is no oxygen present in the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is anaerobic fermentation? |
|
Definition
| pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which can be moved into the blood (pyruvic acid can't be moved outside the cell) |
|
|
Term
| 3 different patterns of mitotic activity in the human adult |
|
Definition
-cells that undergo continual mitosis, need to be replaced often, like skin, bone marrow, etc
-cells that fluctuate- sometimes divide, mostly don't. Liver cells
-cells that do not divide after being formed. muscles cells, neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cells which can create infinite numbers of different kinds of cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytoplasmic movement that separates two daughter cells at the end of mitosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell prepares for division by growing, duplicating organelles, and protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA replication, synthesis of histones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| last-minute protein syntehsis and centriole replication completion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spools around which DNA coils |
|
|
