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A&P1, test 2
A&P1, test 2
139
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
09/25/2012

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Term
Who was the first scientist to look at cells through a microscope?
Definition
Robert Hooke
Term
What was Robert Hooke famously known for?
Definition
Being the first to utilize the microscope to examine cells
Term
Schleiden and Schwann were two German scientists who proposed what?
Definition
That all living things are composed of cells
Term
Which two scientists proposed that all living things are composed of cells?
Definition
Schleiden and Schwann
Term
What are all cells chiefly composed of?
Definition
Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen
Term
The plasma membrane separates two of the body's major fluid compartments, called:
Definition
intracellular and extracellular
Term
What is the outer boundary of a cell?
Definition
the plasma membrane
Term
A human cell is composed of three main parts, which are the:
Definition
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
Term
Integral proteins are firmly embedded in the:
Definition
lipid bilayer
Term
What is the lipid bilayer?
Definition
A double layer of lipid molecules with proteins inserted into it; forms the basic structure of the plasma membrane
Term
Each phospholipid molecule has a polar head, which is ________, and a non-polar 'tail' that is made of two fatty acid chains and is _________.
Definition
hydrophilic, hydrophobic
Term
About 20% of membrane lipid is _____
Definition
cholesterol
Term
Most integral proteins are _______
Definition
transmembraneous
Term
Unlike integral proteins, peripheral proteins are not _________, and instead they _________
Definition
embedded in the lipid bilayer, loosely attach to integral proteins
Term
Proteins make up about ______ of the plasma membrane by mass.
Definition
50% (half)
Term
What is a glycocalyx?
Definition
A sugary covering that describes the fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface
Term
The glycocalyx greatly aids cells in _______
Definition
recognizing each other
Term
What is the 'transport' function of proteins?
Definition
Proteins may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that selectively allows a solute through. Alternatively, it could hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to pump a substance across the membrane.
Term
How can a protein act as a receptor to certain signals?
Definition
Proteins that are exposed to the outside of a cell might come into contact with a specific chemical messenger, such as a hormone. Once bound, said messenger could alter the protein's shape which could cause a chemical reaction within the cell.
Term
How is it helpful for a protein to attach to the cytoskeleton or extracellular matrix?
Definition
Doing so can 'anchor' the cell to help maintain its shape and fix the location of certain membrane proteins, and in some cases, can aid in cell movement or bind adjacent cells together.
Term
How are proteins involved in intercellular joining?
Definition
Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together to form various kinds of junctions, or they can provide temporary binding sites to guide cell migration and other cell-to-cell interactions.
Term
When a cell is becoming cancerous, a definite change occurs in the _______
Definition
glycocalyx
Term
A cancerous cell might be able to keep ahead of the body's immune system due to the
Definition
continuous altering of the cell's glycocalyx
Term
What is a tight junction, and where might it be found?
Definition
An impermeable junction that prevents molecules from passing through the intercellular space; the digestive organs/system
Term
What is a desmosome, and where might such a system be found?
Definition
Anchoring junctions of bound adjacent cells that together form a molecular "Velcro" to form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers; skin and heart
Term
What are gap junctions, and where can they be found?
Definition
Junctions that communicate with each other and allow ions and small molecules to pass for intracellular communication; excitable tissues, such as the heart and smooth muscle
Term
What do microvilli do?
Definition
Increase surface area of a cell
Term
What is diffusion?
Definition
The tendency of molecules or ions to move from an area where they are in a higher concentration to an area where there is a lower concentration. IE, down the concentration gradient.
Term
What is the driving force of diffusion?
Definition
Kinetic energy
Term
The speed of diffusion is influenced by:
Definition
molecular size (the smaller, the faster) and by temperature (the warmer, the faster)
Term
Interstitial fluid is an ________ flood composed mainly of ______,_____,______,_____,_____,______,_____.
Definition
extracellular; amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, vitamins, regulatory substances (hormones and neurotransmitters), salts, and waste products.
Term
Interstitial fluid is mainly derived from ______
Definition
blood
Term
The plasma membrane is _____ permeable.
Definition
selectively
Term
In passive processes, ____ is generally not required.
Definition
ATP
Term
In active processes, ____ is usually required.
Definition
ATP
Term
Osmosis is the diffusion of a solvent, usually ______, through a selectively permeable membrane.
Definition
water
Term
A molecule will diffuse through the plasma membrane if:
Definition
1) it is lipid soluble, 2) small enough to pass through the membrane channels, OR 3) assisted by a carrier molecule
Term
Nonpolar molecules and lipid soluble molecules diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer in _____ diffusion
Definition
Simple
Term
Facilitated diffusion is a passive process by which a substance moves through the plasma membrane through:
Definition
1) binding to protein carriers and being ferried across, or 2) moving through water-filled protein channels
Term
Certain molecules, notably ______, pass through the lipid bilayer with the help of facilitated diffusion.
Definition
glucose
Term
What is a carrier?
Definition
Transmembrane integral proteins that specifically transport certain polar molecules that are too large to pass through membrane channels.
Term
Channels are selective due to _____ size.
Definition
pore
Term
Passive transport provides for a tremendous saving of ____
Definition
ATP
Term
What are isotonic solutions?
Definition
Same solute/water concentration inside and outside of cell; cell remains the same size and shape
Term
What are hypertonic solutions?
Definition
Contains a higher concentration of solutes than are present inside the cells, so cells lose water and shrink
Term
What are hypotonic solutions?
Definition
Contains a lesser concentration of solutes than are present inside the cells, so cells take in water, thus swelling and bursting (lyse)
Term
How is tonicity defined?
Definition
The ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by altering its internal water volume
Term
What are the concentrations of nonpenetrating solutes found in cells?
Definition
.9% saline or 5% glucose
Term
Most of the body's extracellular fluids and most IV solutions are:
Definition
isotonic
Term
Losing water and shrinking, as in hypertonic solutions, is known as:
Definition
crenating (crenate)
Term
Simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion (ie, all passive processes) all move down a _____ _____
Definition
concentration gradient (higher concentration area -> lower concentration area)
Term
What are some examples of substances that move through the lipid bilayer via simple diffusion? __, __, __
Definition
fats, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
Term
Active transporters are also known as:
Definition
solute pumps
Term
Solute pumps move solutes, most importantly ions, ______ the concentration gradient
Definition
uphill (against)
Term
In order to move solutes against the concentration gradients, active processes MUST expend
Definition
ATP
Term
Two transported substances move in the same direction in a
Definition
symport system
Term
Two transported substances move in the opposite direction in an
Definition
anti-port system
Term
The sodium-potassium pump is a prime example of a
Definition
primary active transport system
Term
In the body, the concentration of potassium inside the cell is about ____ times higher than that outside, and the reverse is true for _____
Definition
10, sodium
Term
The sodium-potassium pump acts almost continuously as an _____
Definition
antiport
Term
The Na+-K+ pump is powered by
Definition
ATP
Term
In vesicular transports, fluid containing large particles are transported across the cellular membrane in sacs called
Definition
vesicles
Term
Movement out of a cell is known as
Definition
exocytosis
Term
Exocytosis and endocytosis are powered by
Definition
vesicular transport processes
Term
Vesicular transport is powered by
Definition
ATP
Term
What is phagocytosis?
Definition
It's when a cell engulfs a relatively large or solid material such as bacterium or debris. (for example, a splinter)
Term
Macrophages and certain leukocytes (white blood cells) are said to be the "experts of
Definition
phagocytosis
Term
What is pinocytosis?
Definition
"fluid-phase endocytosis" or 'cell drinking'. It allows cells to 'sample' the extracellular fluid
Term
The selectively permeability of the cell membrane can result in the generation of membrane potential, which is
Definition
voltage across the membrane resulting from the separation of positively charged particles
Term
All cells are said to be ___
Definition
polarized
Term
In the resting state, membrane potential is said to be between:
Definition
-60 to -100 millivolts (mV)
Term
The minus sign beside a cell's voltage count represents that
Definition
the inside of the cell is negative compared to its outside
Term
Cell voltage exists only in the ____ ____
Definition
cell membrane
Term
The interior of a cell is said to be
Definition
electrically negative
Term
What do cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs) do?
Definition
1)They act as 'velcro' that cells use to anchor themselves to molecules, 2) they form the 'arms' that cells use to haul themselves past another, 3) they send SOS signals to get the attention of protective white blood cells to help cure infections, 4) they help the cell respond to changes intension or fluid movement, and 5) they help direct migrating cells, proliferation, and specialization of the cells.
Term
What are membrane receptors?
Definition
A diverse group of integral proteins and glycoproteins that serve as binding sites.
Term
What is contact signaling?
Definition
Where cells come together and touch, thereby recognizing one another.
Term
What is chemical signaling?
Definition
Recognizing each other through chemical means
Term
What are ligands?
Definition
Chemicals that bind specifically to plasma membrane receptors.
Term
Ligands consist mainly of
Definition
neurotransmitters, hormones, and paracrines (chemicals that act locally and a rapidly destroyed).
Term
Two important second messengers are:
Definition
cyclic AMP and ionic calcium
Term
Cyclic AMP and ionic calcium both typically activate what?
Definition
protein kinase enzymes, which can bring about new cellular activity
Term
What is the cytoplasm?
Definition
The cellular material between the nucleus and plasma membrane.
Term
A mitochondria is enclosed in how many membranes?
Definition
Two
Term
The outer membrane of a mitochrondria is _____ and ____, whereas the inner membrane folds inward, forming ______.
Definition
smooth and featureless, cristae
Term
Mitochondria contain their own ____, _____ and _____
Definition
DNA, RNA, and ribosomes
Term
Ribosomes are the site of _____ synthesis
Definition
protein
Term
The rough ER (endoplasmic reticulum) is rough because of the presence of
Definition
ribosomes
Term
Protein synthesis mainly occurs in the ______ due to the high presence of _____
Definition
rough ER, ribosomes
Term
The smooth ER does not aid in the production of proteins. Instead, it helps produce _____
Definition
lipids
Term
The Golgi apparatus consists of _____ and _____ membraneous sacs
Definition
stacked and flattened
Term
What is the major function of the Golgi Apparatus?
Definition
To modify, concentration, and package the proteins and lipids made at the rough ER
Term
Peroxisomes are ____ in shape.
Definition
spherical
Term
Peroxisomes use molecular oxygen to ____. However, their most important function is to ____
Definition
detoxify harmful substances, such as alcohol and formaldehyde. ; neutralize free radicals
Term
How do lysosomes act as a cell's demolition crew?
Definition
1) digest ingested bacteria, viruses and toxins, 2) degrade nonfunctional organelles, 3) perform metabolic functions, such as glycogen break-down, 4) breakdown nonuseful tissues such as the webbing between fingers, 5) breaking down bone to release calcium ions into the bloodstream
Term
The three types of rods in the cytoskeleton are:
Definition
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
Term
Microfilaments are semi-flexible strands of the protein called
Definition
actin
Term
Most microfilaments are involved in cell _____
Definition
motility (movement), aka changing of the cell's shape
Term
Intermediate filaments are the most stable and permanent of the cytoskeletal elements and have high ____ strength
Definition
tensile
Term
What is a centrosome?
Definition
A microtubule organizing center. It generates microtubules and helps organize the mitotic spindle in cell division.
Term
Each centriole consists of a pinwheel array of _____ _____ of microtubules.
Definition
nine, triplets
Term
What are centrioles?
Definition
Small, barrel shaped organelles within the centrosome matrix
Term
Cilia propels _____ across a cell's surface whereas a flagellum propels _____
Definition
substances, the cell itself
Term
Which are longer: cilia, or flagella?
Definition
Flagella
Term
The only flagellated cell in the human body is what?
Definition
Sperm
Term
Centrioles forming the bases of cilia and flagella are commonly called
Definition
basal bodies
Term
What pattern of microtubules is contained within cilia and flagella?
Definition
the "9+2" (nine doublets) pattern
Term
The only anucelate cells in the human body are
Definition
mature red blood cells
Term
Red blood cells have a life expectancy of:
Definition
120 days (4 months)
Term
The nucleoli are found within the nucleus, and are where _____ subunits are produced. They are not bound by a _____.
Definition
ribosomal, membrane
Term
Chromatin is composed mostly of
Definition
30% DNA, 60% histone proteins, and 10% RNA
Term
Histones are globular proteins that provide a means for _____ the very long DNA molecules
Definition
packing
Term
Mitochrondria are the site of
Definition
ATP synthesis
Term
Mitosis is defined as ____ division
Definition
nuclear
Term
The four main stages of mitosis are ____
Definition
PMAT (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase)
Term
DNA is replicated during the ___ phase
Definition
S phase
Term
Interphase occurs between ____ and ____
Definition
Telophase, Prophase
Term
Mitosis is ____
Definition
continuous
Term
Sex cells, unlike body cells, undergo
Definition
Meiosis
Term
Mitosis typically lasts for about:
Definition
an hour or less
Term
Cytokinesis is the division of the ____, and the end product is two ____ cells
Definition
cytoplasm, daughter
Term
DNA serves as the master blueprint for _____
Definition
protein synthesis
Term
A gene is a ____ of a DNA molecule that carries instructions for creating one polypeptide chain
Definition
segment
Term
Proteins are made up of:
Definition
amino acids, or polypeptide chains
Term
The 3 distinct phases of interphase are
Definition
G1, S, and G2
Term
In early prophase, _____ condenses to form barlike _______
Definition
chromatin, chromosomes
Term
_____ is the shortest phase of mitosis
Definition
Anaphase
Term
The 3 types of RNA are:
Definition
Messenger, Ribosomal, and transfer
Term
The development of specific and distinctive features in a cell is called
Definition
cell differentiation
Term
Bodily fluids mainly consist of
Definition
interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid
Term
Cellular secretions are substances that aid in ???? and act as ????
Definition
digestion, lubricants
Term
The _______ is the most abundant of extracellular materials
Definition
extracellular matrix
Term
The extracellular matrix is particularly abundant in ______ tissue
Definition
connective
Term
Apoptosis is a sort of programmed cell death that fires when:
Definition
too many cells of a certain kind are produced
Term
What is atrophy?
Definition
A decrease in the size of an organ or body tissue
Term
What are telomeres?
Definition
'Caps' on the ends of chromosomes that protect them from unnecessary repair, fraying, and loss of important genetic information.
Term
Each time DNA is replicated, _____ become shorter, and once they reach a minimum length, a _____ signal is thought to be given
Definition
telomeres, stop-dividing
Term
What is anaplasia?
Definition
Loss of differentiation/uniqueness in cells, so that they begin to all resemble each other
Term
What is dysplasia?
Definition
A change in cell size, shape, or arrangement due to chronic irritation or inflammation
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