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A&P II
Britton Test 1
100
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
02/11/2012

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Term
What are sensory receptors?
Definition
specialized extensions of the nervous system which upon appropriate stimulation can generate sensory impulses which are sent to the CNS
Term
What is sensation?
Definition
sensory impulses which are sent to the CNS
Term
What is perception?
Definition
interpreted impulses
Term
perception is a function of the ---------- -----------?
Definition
cercbral cortex
Term
What is the organof perception?
Definition
brain
Term
Classification of senses based on localization?
Definition
1) General senses-receptors are widespread thru the body
2) special senses-receptors are localized in specific sites
ex. sight,hearing,smell,taste, and equilibrium
Term
Classification of senses based on location?
Definition
1) somatic-receptores are in the outer body wall and respond to the external stimuli
ex. touch,temp, pain
2)visceral senses-receptors are in the inturnal organs and respond to inturnal stimuli
ex. internal pain,hunger,nausea,tec.
Term
Classification of sensory receptors based on location and source?
Definition
1)exteroreceptors-loc. near the body surface and respond to external stimuli
ex. sight,hearing,touch,ext. pain
2)enteroreceptors-loc. in visceral organs and respond to internal stimuli
ex.internal pain,hunger,nausea
3)proprioreceptors-loc. in skeletal muscles,tendons,joints and inner ear-respond to stimuli regarding the position of the body in 3-D space
Term
Classification of sensory receptors on the basis of adaptation potential?
Definition
1)Tonic receptors-maintain a rel. constant firing rate regardless of the stimulus duration
ex. photoreceptors of the retina
2) Phasic receptors-firing rate gradually decreases w/ continual stimulation
ex. touch or temp receptors in the skin
Term
What is sensory adaptation?
Definition
a decrease in firing rate over time w/ continual stimulation
Term
What is the Law of Specific Nerve Energies?
Definition
each type of receptor produces a specific sensation identified w/ the stimulus that receptor normally responds to-this is its "adequate stimulus"
ex. light for photoreceptors
Term
Will receptors will respond to stimuli other than the adequate stimulus?
Definition
yes, esp. if they are excessively strong
Term
Will the perception be the same if the adequate stimulus is not what is reach?
Definition
yes
Term
when a sensory receptor is stimulated by w/e means what does it cause and what is it called?
Definition
local hypopolarization fo the receptor membrane--receptor potential
Term
Receptor potential is generally what?
Definition
graded hypopolarization
Term
Cam the receptor potenitals summate the reaxh threshold in sensory impulses?
Definition
Yes
Term
What are the two types of summation and discription?
Definition
1) temporal-several stimuli and one receptor in a short time
2) spacial-several stimuli at different receptors at the same time
Term
if the hypopolarization is suffcient what happens?
Definition
an AP results and an sensory impulse is sent to the CNS
Term
Types of general sense receptors(tactile)
Definition
1)meissner's corpuscles)-loc in the dermal papillae of the harless areas of the skin-consist of dentries w/i a thin CT sheath-respond to really light touch
2)Pacinian(lamellar) corpuscle-deep in the dermis and also in some visceral organs,joint capsules, skeletal muscles-consist of dendritesw/i a multi-layered CT sheath-respond the heavy pressure or vibrations
3)Free Nerve-mostly superficial tactile receptors-dendrites end as knobs bet. the cells of lower epidermis-also twine around the roots of hairs as hair root plexes-respondto bending of the hair.
Term
Types of general sense receptors (pain)?
Definition
free nerve endings principally and they respond to chemicals released from damaged tissues-found in most body tissues but are sparce in visceral organs-NONE IN THE BRAIN-MOST RESPOND TO STIMULI THAT ARE EXCESSIVE
Term
What is sensory accomodation?
Definition
a lessening of preception of a stimulus over time
Term
What factors contribute to sesnory accomodation?
Definition
1)sensory adaptation by phasic receptors
2) "stimulus filtering" by cerebral cortex ie. it learns to disregard irrelevent stimuli
Term
Do pain receptors show accomodation?
Definition
little if any
Term
What is refered pain?
Definition
pain originating in a visceral organ but perceived to originate from a specific site on skin-occurs b/c of shared nerve tracts to the brain.
Term
Types of general sense receptors (thermoreceptors)?
Definition
are free nerve endings-are seperate receptors from heate and cold
heat above 25C
cold below 20C
Term
Types of general sense receptors(proprioreceptors)?
Definition
1)neuromuscular spindles-consist of dendrites twined around skeletal muscle fiber-respond to stretching aof the fiber
2)neurotendinous-loc. where the muscle and tendo join-respond to tension in the tendon
3)Joint kinesietic receptors-loc. in join capsules of synovial joints-respond to joint mv't
Term
List the types of general sense receptors.
Definition
1. Tactile
2.pain receptors
3.Thermoreceptors
4. proprioreceptors
Term
Ofaction?
Definition
sense of smell
Term
What are olfactory receptors?
Definition
modified cilia called olfactory hairs projectin from the dendrites of the bipolar neurons composing the nervelets of the olfacory nerve
Term
Where do the olfactory nervelets pass thru?
Definition
cribriform foramina to the olfactory lobes
Term
what is gustation?
Definition
sense of taste
Term
What are gustatory receptors?
Definition
modified cilia(gustatory hairs-borne on specialized guatatory cells loc on microscopic "taste buds" on the epith of the tongue.
Term
Where do gustatory receptors project thru?
Definition
a "taste pore"
Term
What are the 3 major types of papillae of the tongue?
Definition
1)circum vallate-round and flat w/ a groove at the base
2)filiform-blunt soft cones
3)fungiform-blunt knobs
Term
What is photoreception?
Definition
vision
Term
what is cataracts and what does it result from?
Definition
clouding of the lens
results from: tye trama,meds,uncontrolled DM, excessive UV exposure, age
Term
What are the effects of cataracts and tx?
Definition
decreases visual activity,night blindness, halos around bright light, eventual blindness
TX: lens removal and replacement w/ a prostetic lens implant
Term
What is glaucoma and what does it result from?
Definition
increased intraocular pressure-from inproduction or inadequate drainage of the aqueous humor-causes retinal atrophy
Term
What are the effects of glaucoma and tx?
Definition
loss of vision-peripherally at first progresses tot he central field-GRADUAL-surgery,meds to decurese fluid production(beta blockers, carbonic angydrase inhibitors)
Term
What is presbyopia?
Definition
age-related hardeneing of the lens
Term
what are the effects of presbyopia and tx?
Definition
reduces the ability to accomodate from close focus-starts at 35-40-reading glasses
Term
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Definition
1. superior rectus-CN #3
2. medial rectus-CN#3
3. inferior rectus-CN#3
4. inferior oblique-CN#3 oculomotor
5. superior oblique-CN#4 trochlear
6. lateral rectus-CN#6adbucens
Term
How many types of photorecepors are in the retina? What are They?
Definition
1)rods
2)Cones
Term
Characteristics of Rods?
Definition
-approx-100 million in the retina
-black and white image produced
-detect motionwell but acuity is poor
-proo acuity b/c on convergence in the rods from each rod to the bipolar cells and from bipolar cells to ganglion cells
-image is smeared out
-function better in dim light
Term
Characteristics of Cones?
Definition
-approx 7 million in retina(most in the fovea centralis and around it(macula))
-color image
-acuity is great
-NO CONVERGENCE (not function well in dim light)
Term
How many distinct types of cones?
Definition
3
1.green
2.blue
3.red
Term
What causes color blindness?
Definition
a genetic deficiency in one or another type of cones
Term
by firing the ------ along with the --- in different ------, you can percieve the entire ------ ------.
Definition
1)cones
2)rods
3)combos
4) color
5)spectrum
Term
What happens when a rod or cone in stimulated?
Definition
causes hypopolarization in its membrane which spreads to the bipolar cells then to ganglion cells and if it is sufficent to reach threshold at the ganglion cells an AP is produced and a visual impulse is sent
Term
What is the visual pigment in rods called?
Definition
rhodopsin (combo of protein opsin w/ retinaldehyde(retinol) which is a derivative of vitamin A
Term
what is derived from beta carotene?
Definition
vitamin A
Term
In the ------- state,before light hits, the ------- is in the -------- form and tightly bound to the opsin. when light hits it converts to ------form and --------- ----------- from the opsin. That change causes the change in membrane ------- that results in the ---------------.
Definition
1. unexcited
2. retinal
3. 11-cis
4. all-trans
5. partially
6. dissociates
7. permeability
8. hypopolarization
Term
What is the bleaching rxn?
Definition
when the rhodopsin chages color when light hits from deep purple to lighter yellow-orange
Term
after excitation whe all trans retanol muct be what? Where must this occur?
Definition
converted back to 11-cis or replaced with fresth 11-cis. Must occur in the DARK
Term
all info from each side of the visual field is sent to the ---------- side of the brain?
Definition
opposite
Term
what does the brain use to provide depth perception?
Definition
in binocular field each eye sees an object from a different angle
Term
Audition?
Definition
Hearing
Term
What is the organ of hearing and equilibrium?
Definition
inner ear
Term
Whare are the accessory forgans for hearing?
Definition
outter and middle ear
Term
What directs sound into the ear canal?
Definition
auricle
Term
What makes up the tympanum?
Definition
dobule layered membrane partician approx 1 cm in diameter. outer layer=stratifed squamous epith.
inner layer=columnar epith
Term
What glands are in the ear?
Definition
cerumincus-repels arthropods
Term
What is an air filled chamber w/i the petrus part of the temporal bone?
Definition
Middle ear
Term
the middle ear connects w/ the ---------- via the -------- ------, it allows pressure --------- w/ exturnal enviroment.
Definition
1. nasopharynex
2.Eustachian
3. tube
4. equilization
Term
What provides a solid conducting medium for vibrations from the tympanum to the inner ear.
Definition
melleus, incus, stapes
Term
What happens reflexivly in response to loud noises?
Definition
Thee tensor tymani and the stapedius attach to the malleus and stapes respectively and contract to immobilize the ear ossicles to help protect the inner ear from damage.
Term
What the two openings that connect the middle and inner ear and discription?
Definition
1. fenestra vestibuli(oval window)-covered by the foot of the stapes
2. fenestra cochleae(round window)-covered by a thin membrane
Term
The inner ear is also known as the what?
Definition
Labyrinth
Term
What is the space between the walls of the bony labyrinth filled with?
Definition
perilymph
Term
What is the space between the walls of the membranous labyrinth filled with?
Definition
endolymph
Term
the inner ear is divided into 3 areas. whar are they?
Definition
1)semiciricular canals
2)vestibule
3)cochlea
Term
What are sound waves?
Definition
pressure waves caused by moving or vibrating objects
Term
What are the two characteristics of sound waves?
Definition
1. wavelength-distance between crests-determins frequency (cycles per min=hertz)which determines pitch of sound
2. Amplitude-height of waves-determines loudness(decibels)
Term
What is the frequency range that humans can hear?
Definition
20-20,000Hz
Term
chronic exposure to sounds louder than 60-70Db will have what effect?
Definition
permanent hearing loss
Term
airborne sounds waves striking the tympanum cause what?
Definition
It to vibrate-actual displacement if minute
Term
What are the receptors for equilibrium?
Definition
hair cells similar to those of Organ of Corti
Term
Where can the find the hair cells for equilibrium?
Definition
1. maculae in floor of saccule and utricle-respond to linear acceleration/elevation and depression of head
2. the smpullae of semicircular ducts-respond to rotational acceleration of head
Term
What are the sensory hairs?
Definition
modified cilia
Term
what are the hair cells in saccule and utricle embedded in?
Definition
gelatinous substance w/CaC03 crystals called otoliths
Term
Where are the hair cells in the ampullae of semicircular ducts loc.?
Definition
cristae ampullaris
Term
What are the two basic regulatory mechanisms in the body?
Definition
chemical and nervous
Term
What controls the chemical regulation in the body?
Definition
endocrine system
Term
What are the secretions of endocrine glands called?
Definition
hormones
Term
What are the 5 chemical classes of hormones?
Definition
1.steriods
2.amino acid derivatives
3.polypeptides
4.glycoproteins
5.prostaglandins
Term
The inactive form of a hormone is often derived from what?
Definition
less-active precursor
Term
what is a prohormorne?
Definition
when the active form is secreted
Term
What is a prehormone?
Definition
when the precursor is actually secreted and converted to the active form at the target
Term
Where are prehormones normally found?
Definition
in the blood
Term
If prohormones are present in the blood at significant levels what does it indicate?
Definition
pathological process
Term
hormones typically have a rel. short what?
Definition
half-life in the circulation-usually a few hours
Term
What is the primary determinate of circulating hormone levels?
Definition
rate of secretion
Term
The actions of many hormones are -------- -----------.
Definition
concentration dependent
Term
how levels of estrogen act?
Definition
low-triggers the initial release of FSH and LH at the beginning of menstral cycle
middle-causes sudden spike in FSH and LH triggers ovulation
high-(during pregnancy)inhibits FSH and LH release
Term
normal responses to hormaone are seen at what?
Definition
physiological ranges
Term
abnormal rsponses to a hormone are seen at what?
Definition
pharmacological ranges of concentration
Term
Hormone interactions?
Definition
1.permissive effects-action of 1 hormone promotes the acction of another
2.synergistic effects-action of 2 or more hormones is necessary for a specific respone
3.antagonistic effects-involves hormones w/opposing actions
Term
Hormones circulate throughout the body but ?
Definition
only specific target cells or tissues will respond b/c the cells must have receptors specific to the hormone
Term
what are the 3 possible locations for cellular receptors?
Definition
1)on cell membrane
2)in the cytoplasm
3)in the mucleus
Term
Do hormones w/ membrane receptors enter the target cell?
Definition
no-second messenger w/i the target cell
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