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A&P 2
Exam 4
137
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
12/02/2009

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Term
why is breathing essential for life? is Oxygen stored anywhere in the body?
Definition
it is necessary for metabolic reactions that release energy from nutrient molecules & produce ATP. No oxygen is not stored in the body.
Term
where does CO2 come from? what happens if it is allowed to accumulate in body tissues?
Definition
released as a bi-product from cellular metabolism. Excessive amounts of CO2 produces acidity that can be toxic to cells
Term
what is the general function of the conducting portion of the respiratory system? and what structures is it composed of?
Definition
filters warm and moisten air & conduct it into the lungs. nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, & terminal bronchioles.
Term
what is the general function of the respiratory portion of the respiratory system? and what structures is it composed of?
Definition
main site of gas exchange between air and blood. respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli.
Term
what is the primary function of the larynx?
Definition
"voicebox". the arytenoid cartilages influence changes in position and tension of the vocal folds.
Term
what is the glottis?
Definition
the vocal folds (truse vocal cords) in the larynx, plus the space between them.
Term
what is the epiglottis?
Definition
a large leaf shaped piece of cartilage lying on top of the larynx attached to the thyroid cartilage. Its unattached portion is free to move up and down to cover the glottis during swallowing.
Term
during swallowing, what mechanism prevents food from entering the repiratory passages?
Definition
the closing of the larync by way of the epiglottis forming a lid over the glottis.
Term
what is the function of the cartilage in the trachea and other respiratory passageways?
Definition
provides stable structure & keeps them open
Term
what is the function of mucus, cilia, and phagocytes in the respiratory tract?
Definition
helps trap dust, move mucus & debris, and removes dust & debris.
Term
the microscopic air sacs of the lungs are called _____. what is their function?
Definition
alveoli. gas exchange
Term
what structural features of the alveoli promote gas exchange?
Definition
thin walls, simple squamous epithelium
Term
what are the 4 layers of the respiratory membrane through which gases must diffuse from alveolar space to capillary lumen, or vice versa.
Definition
1. alveolar wall
2. epithelial basement membrane
3. capillary basement membrane
4. capillary epithelium
Term
what is the differnece in functino between type I and type II alveolar cells?
Definition
type I - main site of gas exchange
type II - secrete alveolar fluid, which keeps the surface between the cells, and the air moist.
Term
what is the function of alveolar macrophages (dust cells)?
Definition
to remove fine dust particles & other debris from the alveolar spaces
Term
which of the different structures of the respiratory system is an air passageway only? gas exchange only?
Definition
air - all but pharynx
gas - alveoli
Term
what is bronchodilation? will this increase or decrease resistance to airflow?
Definition
airway opening, decrease resistance to airflow
Term
what is bronchoconstriction? will this increase or decrease resistance to airflow?
Definition
airway obstruction, increase resistance to airflow
Term
which condition (bronchodilation or broncoconstriction)is characteristic of asthma?
Definition
broncoconstriction
Term
sympathetic stimulation (causes b-dilation, or b-constriction)
Definition
b-dilation
Term
histamine (causes b-dilation or b-constriction)
Definition
b-constriction
Term
epinephrine (causes b-dilation or b-constriction)
Definition
b-dilation
Term
beta-2 adrenergic agonist drugs (causes b-dilation or b-constriction)
Definition
b-dilation
Term
arrange the respiratory tract structures in the proper order.
Definition
external nares--nasal cavity--internal nares--nasopharynx--oropharynx--laryngopharynx--epiglottis--larynx--trachea--bronchial tree--primary bronchus--bronchioles--alveoli
Term
which of the respiratory tract structures are found inside the lungs?
Definition
alveoli, bronchial tree, bronchioles, primary bronchus
Term
as air moves through all of the respiratory tract passageways, it is exposed to the epithelial lining. what is the effect of this lining on the incoming air?
Definition
traps dust & foreign substances, phagocytizes or expels warm & moistened air
Term
the tapered superior end of each lung is its ______. the broad inferior end is the ______. the identation where the primary bronchus, pulmonary artery and veins, and nerves enter each lung is the _____.
Definition
apex, base, hilum
Term
the left lung is divided by the _______ fissure into 2 lobes. Name them.
Definition
oblique. superior & inferior
Term
for the right lung, how many lobes and fissures are there? name them.
Definition
2 fissures - oblique & horizontal
3 lobes - superior, inferior, middle
Term
each lobe of the lung is subdivided by connective tissue partitions into ten __________ segments, each supplied by a _________.
Definition
bronchopulmonary, tertiary bronchi.
Term
what is lung compliance? why is it important?
Definition
compliance refers to how much effort is required to stretch the lungs & chest wall. Its important because if compliance is low, they resist expansion and can cause many pulmonary conditions.
Term
what two major factors contribute to lung compliance?
Definition
elasticity & surface tension
Term
what is the function of pulmonary surfactant? what happens to premature babies who have inadequate surfactant? what is this condition called?
Definition
lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces the tendancy of alveoli to collapse. Respiratory Distress Syndrome - surface tension of alveolar fluid is greatly increased, so that many alveoli collapse at the end of each exhalation
Term
the natural elactic recoil of the lungs tend to cause them to collapse. what two forces prevent their collapse?
Definition
1. transpulmonary pressure
2. surface tension of alveolar fluid
Term
in the condition called "pneumothorax", air enters the pleural cavity and causes a lung to collapse. what causes this to happen?
Definition
the intra pleural pressure is lost causing the suction (to the visceral pleura) to be lost. air in the pleural cavity
Term
volume of air exchanged in a normal breath
Definition
tidal volume
Term
moximum volume of air inspired beyond a normal inspiration
Definition
inspiratory reserve volume
Term
maximum volume of air expired beyong a normal expiration
Definition
expiratory reserve volume
Term
maximum amount of air that can be exchanged (IRV+TV+ERV)
Definition
vital capacity
Term
maximum amount of air the lungs can hold
Definition
total lung capacity (RV+VC)
Term
volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration
Definition
residual volume
Term
what is "minute ventilation"? how is it calculated?
Definition
the total volume of air inhaled & exhaled each minute. respiratory rate multiplied by tidal volume
Term
what is the "anatomic dead space"?
Definition
the conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange
Term
what is the "alveolar ventilation rate"? how is it different from "minute ventilation"?
Definition
the volume of air per minute that actually reached the respiratory zone. minute involves all air, alveolar is only part of air from minute
Term
what is the "alveolar ventilation rate"? how is it different from "minute ventilation"?
Definition
the volume of air per minute that actually reached the respiratory zone. minute involves all air, alveolar is only part of air from minute
Term
approximately what percent of total blood oxygen is boundd to hemoglobin? dissolved in plasma?
Definition
98.5%, 1.5%
Term
what is hemoglobin bound to oxygen called? to what portion of a hemoglobin does oxygen bind?
Definition
oxyhemoglobin, iron part of heme group
Term
how many O2 molecules can a single hemoglobin molecule bind? when it binds to the maximum number of o2 molecules, it is said to be ___________.
Definition
4, fully saturated
Term
the extent to which O2 binds to hemoglobin (percent saturation) is primarily determined by the _____. as this factor rises, does percent saturation increase or decrease?
Definition
PO2, increases
Term
in the pulmonary capillaries, does the PO2 of the plasma rise of fall?
Definition
rise
Term
in the pulmonary capillaries, does the percent saturation of hemoglobin rise or fall?
Definition
rise
Term
in the tissue capillaries, does the PO2 of the plasma rise or fall?
Definition
fall
Term
in the tissue capillaries, does the percent saturation rise or fall? thus delivering oxygen to the tissues
Definition
fall
Term
at sea level, the PO2 of arterial blood for an average person is_______ and the hemoglobin saturation is approx______%
Definition
60-100 mmHg, 90%
Term
what is the effect of plasma pH on the hemoglobin binding of oxygen?
Definition
as pH decreases, binding decreases & O2 dissociates more readily from hemoglobin.
Term
what is the effect of plasma PCO2 on the hemoglobin binding of oxygen?
Definition
as PCO2 rises, hemoglobin releases O2 more readily
Term
what is the effect of temperature on the hemoglobin binding of oxygen?
Definition
as temperature increases, so does the amount of O2 released from hemoglobin
Term
what does pulse oximetry measure?
Definition
oxygenation of a patients hemoglobin
Term
what is the difference between fatal and adult hemoglobin? what advantage does this offer the fetus?
Definition
they differ in structure & in its affinity for O2. Hb-f has a higher affinity for O2 because it binds BPG less strongly. This is important because the O2 saturation in maternal blood in the placenta is quite low & the fetus might suffer hypoxia were it not for the greater affinity of fetal hemoglobin for O2.
Term
how does carbon monoxide poisoning occur? what is the relationship between CO2 and O2 - binding of hemoglobin?
Definition
elevated blood levels of CO. They both bind to the heme group of the hemoglobin, but the binding of CO to hemoglobin is over 200 times as strong as the binding of O2.
Term
where is the brain is the medullary rhythmicity area (inspiratory & expiratory areas) located?
Definition
medulla oblongata
Term
where in the brain is the pneumotaxic area located?
Definition
upper pons
Term
where in the brain is the apneeustic area located?
Definition
lower pons
Term
action potentials generated in the rhythmicity area are conducted down the spinal cord to the _______ nerve to the _______ (muscle), and to the _______nerve to the _______muscles, which then contract, causing inspiration.
Definition
intercostal, external intercostal, phrenic, diaphragm
Term
what three chemical components of blood are the major regulators of breathing rate?
Definition
CO2, H+, O2
Term
what are the receptors as a group, called?
Definition
chemoreceptors
Term
where are the "central" receptors found? the "peripheral" receptors?
Definition
central - medulla oblongata in the CNS
peripheral - aortic bodies in the wall of the arch of the aorta & the carotid bodies in the walls of the carotid arteries
Term
where are the kidneys located?
Definition
above the waist, between the peritoneum & posterior wall of abdomen
Term
what is the general function of the kidneys?
Definition
regulate blood volume & composition, help regulate blood pressure, synthesize glucose, release erythropoietin, participate in vit. D synthesis, & excrete wastes by forming urine.
Term
where are the ereters located?
Definition
between the renal pelvis & bladder
Term
what is the function of the ureters?
Definition
transport urine from kidneys to the bladder
Term
where is the bladder located?
Definition
male - anterior to the rectum
female - anterior to vagina, inferior to uterus
Term
what is the function of the bladdere?
Definition
stores urine
Term
where is the urethra located?
Definition
female - posterior to the pubic symphysis
male - prostate--deep muscles of perinum--penis
Term
what is the function of the urethra?
Definition
discharges urine from the body
Term
the kidneys are describes as __________, that is, they lie posterior to the _________ peritoneum.
Definition
retroperitoneal, parietal
Term
what is a nephron? how many are in each kidney? why is it called the "functional unit" of the kidney?
Definition
they are the functional units of the kidneys. about 1 million. microscopic structure that forms urine.
Term
list the vascular components of a nephron in correct order
Definition
afferent areriole--> glomerulus--> efferent arteriole--> peritubular capillaries
Term
list the tubular components of a nephron in correct order
Definition
Bowmans capsule--> PCT--> loop of henle--> DCT--> collecting duct
Term
what type of tissue makes up the Bowman's capsule, tubules, and collecting ducts?
Definition
simple squamous & simple cuboidal
Term
describe the JG cells and what is their function?
Definition
modified smooth muscle fibers on the wall of afferent arterioles & sometimes efferent arterioles. they secrete renin into the blood and work w/the macula densa to help regulate blood pressure in the kidneys
Term
describe the macula densa and name its function
Definition
a dense spot of cells of the DCT. provides feedback to the glomerulus. detects the increased delivery of Na+, Cl-, & water and to inhibit release of nitric oxide from cells in JGA. works with the JG cells to help regulate blood pressure in the kidneys
Term
what is the difference between tubular fluid (filtrate) and urine?
Definition
filtrate - product of filtration
urine - filtrate + wastes, drugs, ions
Term
Urine formation: The initial process is ________ in which plasma minus proteins cross the glomerulus to enter the Bowman's capsule. Then, some substances are selectively removed from this fluid and returned to the blood by the process of _______, which results in retention of these substances by the body. Also, a few substances are added to the tubular fluid by the process of _______. Where in the nephron do the last 2 processes occur?
Definition
glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion. rental tubule/collecting ducts
Term
what are abnormal components of urine?
Definition
glucose, amino acids, protein (albumin), bilirubin, RBC's, WBC's, ketone bodies, bacteria
Term
what are normal components of urine?
Definition
water, sodium & other ions, urea, creatinine, uric acid
Term
what are the components of urine that are commonly tested in routine urinalysis?
Definition
glucose, protein (albumin), bilirubin, RBC's, WBC's, ketone bodies, bacteria
Term
in general, substances can be added to the ECF by _____ or _____. substances can be eliminated from the ECF by _____ or _____. homeostatic control of this balance and hence ECF composition is mostly maintained by controlling _____ by the ______.
Definition
ingestion, metabolic production. excretion, metabolic use. urinary output, kidneys.
Term
what are sources of water gain?
Definition
metabolic water, moist foods, ingested liquids
Term
what are sources of water loss?
Definition
GI tract, lungs, skin, kidneys
Term
why is regulation of ECF volume so significant?
Definition
blood pressure
Term
why is regulation of ECF concentration (osmolarity) so significant?
Definition
cellular hydration
Term
If the ECF is too dillute, (hypotonic/hypertonic), water will diffuse (into or out of) cells causing them to _______
Definition
hypotonic, into, swell
Term
If the ECF is too concentrated (hypotonic/hypertonic), water will diffuse (into or out of) cells causing them to ______.
Definition
hypertonic, out of, shrink
Term
what is osmolarity?
Definition
a measure of the total number of dissolved particles per liter of solution
Term
"Increased osmolarity" of the ECF may also be expressed as "ECF is too (concentrated or dilute)", "ECF is (hypertonic/hypotonic)", and noting the condition of (hypernatremia or hyponatremia)
Definition
concentrated, hypertonic, hypernatremia
Term
control of ECF volume relies primarily on regulating _____ (name substance) retention or excretion; control of ECF concentration relies primarily on regulating ______ (name substance) retention or excretion.
Definition
salt, water
Term
the kidneys regulate ECF concentration by producing a _______ urine when the ECF is too concentrated, and producing a _____ urine when the ECF is too dilute.
Definition
concentrated, dilute
Term
the loops of henle pump solute into the surrounding ISF, making it_______. water can osmose into this concentrated ISF only if the wall of the _______ is permeable to water. its permeability if dependent on the presence of the hormone_______.
Definition
hypertonic, principle cell of collecting duct, ADH
Term
what is the alternate name for ADH?
Definition
vasopressin
Term
what is the major stimulus for release of ADH?
Definition
increased osmolarily of ECF or decreased blood volume
Term
ADH - location of osmoreceptors and control center?
Definition
hypothalamus
Term
ADH - site of production?
Definition
hypothalamus (neurosecretory cells)
Term
ADH - site of release?
Definition
posterior pituitary gland
Term
ADH - major action?
Definition
increases facultative reabsorption of water, which decreases osmolarity of body fluids
Term
in the presence of ADH, water is (more/less) reabsorbed by the _______ of the kidney. This produces a (dilute/concentrated) urine. This (retention/elimination) of water by the body (dilutes/concentrates) the ECF back toward normal.
Definition
more, principle cells of collecting ducts, concentrated, retention, dilutes
Term
in the absence of ADH, water is (more/less) reabsorbed by the _______ of the kidney. This produces a (dilute/concentrated) urine. This (retention/elimination) of water by the body (dilute/concentrates) the ECF back toward normal.
Definition
less, principle cells of collecting ducts, dilute, elimination, concentrates
Term
the amount of ADH and hence water reabsorption varies depending on the ______ of the ECF
Definition
osmolarity
Term
is ECF is too concentrated, osmoreceptors/control center in _______ stimulate the _________ to (increase/decrease) production of _____. which causes (increase/decrease) _______ (response in collecting ducts). and leads to _________ by the colleting ducts and production of (concentrated/dilute) urine, ultimately diluting the ECF back to normal.
Definition
hypothalamus, post. pituitary, increases, ADH, increases permeability, reabsorption, concentrated
Term
is ECF is too dilute, osmoreceptors/control center in _______ stimulate the ________ to (increase/decrease) production of _____. which causes (increases/decrease) _______(response in collecting ducts), which leads to ______ by the collecting ducts and productions of (concentrated/dilute) urine. ultimately concentrating the ECF back to normal.
Definition
hypothalamus, post. pituitary, decreases, ADH, decreases permeability, secretion, dilute
Term
to summarize, when ADH is present, the kidneys produce a ______ urine. When ADH is not present, the kidneys produce a _____ urine.
Definition
concentrated, dilute
Term
to summarize, the main hormone influencing ECF osmolarity is _____ and it acts of _____ reabsorption by the ____ and ______ of the nephrons.
Definition
ADH, water, DCT, collecting ducts
Term
hypertonic ECF also stimulates the thirst center located in the _______. increased water intake also helps to (dilute/concentrate) the ECF back to normal.
Definition
hypothalamus, dilute
Term
the pH of the ECF is normally maintained within the range of _______.
Definition
7.35-7.45
Term
why is acid-base homeostasis vital to life?
Definition
it is critical to normal cellular function
Term
define acid
Definition
a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions & one or more anions. "proton donor"
Term
define base
Definition
removes H+ from a solution "proton acceptor". many bases dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one more more cations.
Term
an acid has a pH of _____. a base has a pH of _____. a pH of ___ is neutral.
Definition
0-6.9, 7.1-14, 7
Term
what is the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid? between a strong base and a weak base?
Definition
strong acids lower pH more than weak acids because they release H+ more readily & thus contribute more free hydrogen ions. same w/strong bases.
Term
what is the major source of hydrogen ions in the ECF?
Definition
CO2
Term
what is the equation that shows the relationship between CO2 and H+?
Definition
H2O + CO2 ---> H2CO3 ---> H+ + HCO3- (reversible reaction)
Term
if you increase CO2 in your ECF, will it become more or less acidic?
Definition
more acidic
Term
if you decrease CO2 in your ECF, will it become more or less acidic?
Definition
less acidic
Term
what are the 3 general mechanisms for removing H+ from the ECF?
Definition
Buffer System, Exhalation of CO2 (respiratory system), Kidney excretion of H+ (urinary system)
Term
Buffer System
Definition
temporarily binds H+, removing excess H+ from solution. raises pH of body fluids but doesn't remove H+ from the body
Term
Exhalation of CO2 (respiratory system)
Definition
when more CO2 is exhaled, level of carbonic acid decreases which raises blood pH.
Term
Kidney excretion of H+ (urinary system)
Definition
slowest mechanism, but the only way to remove acids other than carbonic acid is through excretion in urine.
Term
when the diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract, the size of the thoracic cavity _______, thus_______ intra-alveolar pressure.
Definition
increases, decreasing
Term
air flows into the lungs whenever intre-alveolar pressure is ______ atmospheric pressure.
Definition
less than
Term
your arterial PCO2 increases from 40 mm to 45 mm. what change in your breathing rate does this cause?
Definition
increased breathing rate
Term
which of the following is/are correct about gas exchange in the lungs? mark as many as apply: A) PCO2 in the alveoli is greater than the CO2 of blood entering the pulmonary capillaries. B)PO2 of the blood entering the pumonary capillaties is less than PO2 of the alveoli, C) oxygen diffuses across the capillary walls from the blood into the alveolar air spaces
Definition
B
Term
which of these is true about ADH?
A) it is released by the post. pituitary gland. B) increased levels make the loop of henle more permeable to water. C) increased levels cause greater water secretion by the kidneys. D) increased levels cause greater sodium reabsorption by the kidneys
Definition
A
Term
which of the following is/are true about aldosterone?
A) it is produced by the adrenal medulla. B) increased secretion causes increased tubular reabsorption of sodium. C) increased secretion causes increased tubular reabsorption of potassium. D) all of these
Definition
B
Term
you just drank a quart of water. what happened as a result? mark as many as apply.
A) your ECF became hypertonic
B) resulting change in your hydration caused release of ADH
C) you quickly began producing dilute urine
Definition
C
Term
john has a blood pH of 7.3 and a higher than normal PCO2. what is his acid-base status?
A) metabolic alkalosis
B) respiratory alkalosis
C) metabolic acidosis
D) respiratory acidosis
Definition
D
Term
assuming normal kidney function, filtrate in Bowman's capsule does NOT contain (mark as many as apply)
A) glucose
B) sodium
C) blood cells
D) plasma proteins
Definition
C & D
Term
glomerular fultration rate is increased by:
A) higher glomerular blood pressure
B) higher osmotic pressure of the blood
C) more active transport across the glomerulus walls
D) increased capsular hydrostatic pressure
Definition
A
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