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A&P 1: Final Exam
Ch. 12,13,14,17
193
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
12/04/2010

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Term
Neurons communicate with other neurons and stimulate both _____ and ______.
Definition
muscles and glands
Term
what are the part of the neuron is the input area which receives signals from other neurons?
Definition
the dendrites
Term
what is the main nutritional and metabolic area of the neuron (as well as an input area)?
Definition
the soma
Term
what is the conductive region of the neuron that generates an action potential?
Definition
the axon
Term
signals from other neurons are received at junctions called:
Definition
synapses
Term
The area where the axon emerges from the soma is called the:
Definition
axon hillock
Term
an action potential is generated from:
Definition
the axon hillock
Term
an axon can branch forming what?
Definition
axon collateral
Term
at the end, axons branch, forming axon:
Definition
terminals
Term
what support cell forms the myelin sheath?
Definition
schwann cells
Term
myelin is found around which part of the neuron
Definition
the axon
Term
the tightly wound cell membrane around the axon forms the myelin sheath and acts as a ?
Definition
conductor
Term
the gaps between the Schwann cells, called the _________________, are essential for the conduction of the action potential.
Definition
nodes of ranvier
Term
the most common central nervous system neuron is called a _________ neuron.
Definition
sensory (afferent)
Term
_______ neurons are found in the:
Definition
PNS
Term
neurons have (only one or many) axon/s?
Definition
only one.
Term
axons are (never or frequently) branched.
Definition
frequently
Term
Dendrites have (only one or many) branch/s.
Definition
many
Term
what triggers an action potential?
Definition
resting membrane potential and ion channels.
Term
what dictates a neuron's resting membrane potential?
Definition
it's ion channels.
Term
what is depolarization?
Definition
any shift from a resting potential to a positive potential.
Term
what is hyperpolarization?
Definition
an increase in negativity from resting potential.
Term
repolarization does what?
Definition
restores normal resting potential.
Term
which channels help to maintain the resting potential?
Definition
potassium leak channels
Term
what is myasthenia gravis?
Definition
Myasthenia Gravis is a chronic neuromuscular disease. The disease is characterized by abnormal weakness of voluntary muscles.

With this disease, antibodies bind to ACh receptors and help destroy the post-synaptic membrane and it's Na+ channels, reducing the ability for action potentials to pass along the post synaptic membrane (in fact there is less post synaptic membrane in MG)
Term
What is an axoaxonic synapse?
Definition
when the axon of one neuron synapses with the presynaptic terminal (axon) of another. Many of the synapses of the CNS are axoaxonic.
Term
Presynaptic inhibition:
Definition
reduction in the amount of neurotransmitter released from presynaptic terminal. For example, endorphins can inhibit pain sensation this way.
Term
presynaptic facilitation
Definition
amount of neurotransmitter released from presynaptic terminal increases. Example: glutamate facilitating nitric oxide production.
Term
What is multiple sclerosis?
Definition
a disease characterized by recurrent incidents of de-myleination that affects axons in the optic nerve, brain and spinal cord.
Term
a typical stimulus produces a temporary, localized change in the resting potential of a cell membrane. The effect, which decreases with distance from the stimulus is called a:
Definition
graded potential.
Term
if the graded potential is significantly large it triggers an:
Definition
action potential.
Term
synaptic activity produces graded potentials in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. This process typically involves the release of __________ by the presynaptic cell. these compounds bind to receptors on the postsynaptic plasma membrane , changing it's permeability.
Definition
neurotransmitters, ex: ACh (comparable to the event in sliding filament theory)
Term
leak channels
Definition
ion channels that are always open.
Term
active (gated) channels:
Definition
open or close in response to specific stimuli.
Term
3 types of gated channels are:
Definition
chemically gated, voltage gated and mechanically gated.
Term
a localized depolarization or hyperpolarization is:
Definition
a graded potential
Term
__________ arises when a region of excitable membrane depolarizes to its _________.
Definition
action potential, threshold.
Term
steps of an action potential (quick and dirty)
Definition
1. membrane depolarization to threshold, activation of sodium channels and rapid depolarization.
2. inactivation of sodium channels and activity of potassium channels
3. return to normal permeability.
Term
action potentials follow which principle?
Definition
all or none.
Term
what is the refractory period?
Definition
the time an action potential begins up until the normal resting potential has returned. (all cylinders are firing so it will be impossible for the cell membrane to do anything else until resting potential returns)
Term
what happens to the postsynaptic cell after a neurotransmitter is released?
Definition
a depolarization occurs (which is a graded potential) and if there is a very large number of ACh and that brings the adjacent area to threshold, then an action potential will appear at the postsynaptic membrane.
Term
what are some examples of cutaneous senses?
Definition
touch, pressure, temperature, pain, vibrations
Term
cutaneous receptors can be either encapsulated or non-encapsulated. Give the names of the 2 non-encapsulated cutaneous receptors:
Definition
hair follicle receptor and free nerve ending
Term
Give some examples of encapsulated cutaneous sense receptors:
Definition
meissner corpuscle, ruffini end organ, pacinian corpuscle.
Term
The only major sensation relayed directly to the cerebral cortex without passing through thalamus
Definition
olfaction
Term
receptors that mediate the gustatory sense:
Definition
taste buds
Term
3 types of papillae are used in the sensation of taste, which are they:
Definition
Circumvallate papilla- help to rapidly detect taste change and for salvation, contain many taste buds
Filiform papilla- make tongue rough to manipulate food, no function
Fungiform papilla- contain a few taste buds.
Term
The 5 types of taste are:
Definition
salty, sweet, bitter, umami and sour
Term
external ear components:
Definition
Auricle (Pinna)
External auditory meatus (ear canal)
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Term
malleous, incus and stapes are the:
Definition
auditory ossicles, they are components of the middle ear
Term
the auditory tube is also known as the:
Definition
Eustachian tube
Term
the inner ear is composed of:
Definition
Cochlea
Vestibule
Semicircular canals
Term
what is the structure of the cochlea?
Definition
Scala vestibuli & Scala tympani on either side of the cochlear duct filled with perilymph

Cochlear duct filled with endolymph
Term
what is the pathway of sound?
Definition
Tympanic membrane --> Auditory ossicles -->Oval window --> Perilymph in Scala Vestibuli --> Vestibular membrane (+ Endolymph) --> Basilar membrane -->Perilymph in Scala Tympani --> Round window
Term
static equilibrium
Definition
At the entrance to the inner ear is the VESTIBULE which contains two sacs of fluid called the UTRICLE and the SACCULE which are floating in perilymph. They are sensory organs responsible for detecting and transmitting information regarding balance, position in space, acceleration, and deceleration. Suspended in the fluid are calcium carbonate particles called OTOLITHS. As the head moves from one position to the other, these ear stones will move too. The otoliths brush against sensory nerve hairs that line the utricle and saccule, which depolarize and send a message to the brain.
Term
dynamic equilibrium
Definition
The SEMICIRCULAR CANALS contain fluid and are responsible for detecting changes in motion. There are three semicircular canals (all at different angles), each responsible for detecting motion on a different plane. Within the canals are nerve hairs which sense changes in the movement of the perilymph fluid and depolarize, thus sending a message to the brain. Ex: spinning in a circle
Term
passive leak ion channels are:
Definition
always open
Term
ligand gated ion channels:
Definition
must have specific stimulus to open it (Na+)
Term
voltage gated ion channels
Definition
activated by changes in electrical potential difference near the channel; these types of ion channels are especially critical in neurons, but are common in many types of cells.
Term
mechanically gated ion channels:
Definition
open or close in response to specific distortion (ex: pressure)
Term
graded potentials:
Definition
changes in the trans-membrane potentials that cannot spread far from the site of stimulation.
Term
which ion channels respond to temperature sensors in the skin?
Definition
mechanical
Term
what triggers an action potential?
Definition
resting membrane potential and ion channels
Term
how is an action potential conducted down the axon?
Definition
ion channels and action potentials, myelination & saltatory conduction/nodes of ranvier, types of fibers
Term
temporal summation
Definition
occurring at a single synapse when a second EPSP arrives before the effects of the first have disappeared
Term
spatial summation
Definition
resulting from the cumulative effects of multiple synapses at various locations.
Term
hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane is an:
Definition
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Term
a depolarization caused by a neurotransmitter is an:
Definition
excitatory postsynaptic potential or EPSP
Term
relative vs. absolute refractory period
Definition
relative begins when the sodium channels regain their normal resting contition whereas absolute refractory period happens when the membrane cannot respond to ANY further stimulus.
Term
Type A fibers:
Definition
largest, myelinated.. action potentials are fastest
Term
Type B fibers:
Definition
smaller myelinated axons, slower but still faster than type C
Term
Type C fibers:
Definition
unmyelinated and very small, action potentials move at a leisurely pace.
Term
After ACh has been released, bound to receptor and depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane what happens?
Definition
ACh is removed by AChE
Term
what happens when norepinephrine is released?
Definition
It has an excitatory, depolarizing effect on the postsynaptic membrane.
Term
If the neurons that produce dopamine are damaged or destroyed, the result can be the characteristic rigidity and stiffness of:
Definition
Parkinson disease
Term
How do SSRI's work?
Definition
selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors increase serotonin concentrations at synapses and over time, the increase may relieve symptoms of depression.
Term
GABA
Definition
generally has an inhibitory effect on cell membranes
Term
which part of the eye protects the surface of the eye, lubricates the eye and prevents debris from entering the eye?
Definition
eyelids
Term
what is the name of the mucous membrane that lines the inside surface of the eyelid and the anterior of the eye?
Definition
conjunctiva
Term
what is the name of the gland that is superior and lateral to the eye and produces tears?
Definition
lacrimal gland
Term
how many muscles of the eye exist?
Definition
6-- superior, inferior, medial oblique/rectus
Term
what is the name of the opening of the eye where light enters?
Definition
the pupil
Term
where does light focus?
Definition
retina
Term
which structure controls the size of the pupil to control the amount of light that is let into the eye?
Definition
the iris
Term
what is the name of the dense avascular connective tissue around the eye?
Definition
fibrous tunis
Term
this structure has 2 componenets: _____ is the white part of the eye and is continous with the cornea. It provides mechanical support to the eye and is the site of attachment for the extrinsic eye muscles.
Definition
sclera
Term
the _____ bends rays of light (eyes)
Definition
cornea
Term
the anterior chamber of the eye is filled with ________ humor, which is similar in structure to CSF.
Definition
aqueous humor
Term
the _______ gives a person his or her eye color. This structure also has 2 smooth muscles that control its diameter.
Definition
the iris.
Term
the iris attaches to the ______ which uses a ciliary muscle to focus the lens and also produces aqueous humor.
Definition
ciliary body
Term
the ______ is also known as the vascular tunic. It consists of the iris, the ciliary body and the choroids.
Definition
the uvea
Term
the _______ provides nutrients to the 3 layers of the eye
Definition
capillary
Term
a _______ connect the lens to ciliary muscles
Definition
suspensary
Term
the largest chamber of the eye is the
Definition
posterior cavity
Term
the posterior cavity is filled with:
Definition
vitreous humor
Term
the neural layer of the retina contains 2 types of photoreceptors: ____ and ______. These two types of photoreceptors are not distributed evenly within the eye.
Definition
rods, cones
Term
rods are mostly found within the _______ of the retina.
Definition
periphery
Term
the macula lutea contains only ________.
Definition
cones
Term
The macula lutea contains a depressed spot called the:
Definition
fovea
Term
the blind spot is because of and also known as the:
Definition
optic disk
Term
the external ear consists of the ________ which is also known as the pinna.
Definition
auricle
Term
the tympanic membrane is also known as the:
Definition
eardrum
Term
the ________ is an air filled tube that is also known as the pharynogotympanic tube that equalizes air pressure between the ear and the surrounding atmosphere.
Definition
eustacian
Term
in the inner ear, this structure forms a spiral shape:
Definition
the cochlea
Term
the cochlea contains the vestibular complex, which contains receptors for:
Definition
sense of equilibrium
Term
the cochlea consists of the _____ and the _________.
Definition
cochlear duct, bony cochlea
Term
the cochlear duct is also known as the membranous labyrinth and is filled with
Definition
endolymph
Term
the bony cochlea is also known as the bony labyrinth and is filled with:
Definition
perilymph
Term
in the middle ear, the malleus, incus and stapes are also known as the:
Definition
auditory ossicles
Term
the stapes rests on the ______ window. sound then is eventually transmitted to the _____ window.
Definition
oval, round
Term
In the organ of Corti, hair cells touch the ________ membrane.
Definition
tectorial
Term
In the vestibule, two structures called the _______ and _________ are important in detecting gravity. Hair cells in the macula are embedded in gelatin containing otoliths.
Definition
sacule, utricle
Term
In the semicircular canals, angular momentum is detected in the _______, which contains endolymph.
Definition
Term
which cranial nerve is the largest?
Definition
CN5, trigeminal
Term
which cranial nerve is the only one that exits the posterior side of the brainstem?
Definition
CN4, trochlear
Term
which cranial nerves are responsible for eye movement
Definition
oculomotor (3), trochlear (4), and abducent (6)
Term
which 3 nerves carry gustatory (taste) information?
Definition
facial, olfactory and glossopharyngeal
Term
which cranial nerve is the longest?
Definition
vagus (10)
Term
which sensory nerves carry information about blood pressure to the brain?
Definition
glossopharyngeal (9) and vagus (10)
Term
this cranial nerve is associated with balance and hearing
Definition
vestibulocochlear (8)
Term
which nerve can be tested to see if tongue movement is impaired?
Definition
hypoglossal (12)
Term
the middle ear is the air filled portion of the ear located within the _______ portion of the temporal bone.
Definition
petrus
Term
how can drug use (heroin) cause a person to acquire symptoms of Parkinson's disease?
Definition
parkinson's disease is caused by a drastic breakdown of dopamine in the substantia nigra. drugs like heroin attack this region of the brain causing a drastic loss of dopamine and symptoms of Parkinson's.
Term
telencephelon becomes:
Definition
cerebrum
Term
prosencephalon becomes:
Definition
diencephalon
Term
mesencephalon becomes:
Definition
stays the mesencephalon
Term
rhombencephalon becomes:
Definition
metencephalon (then becomes cerebellum and pons) and myelencephalon (then becomes medulla oblongata)
Term
In the spinal cord gray matter is found on the inside and white matter on the outside. what is white and gray matter?
Definition
gray matter: soma's are unmyelinated
white matter: mylenated axons
Term
in the brain _____ matter is deepest and ____ matter is most superficial.
Definition
white, gray
Term
basal cell nuclei refer to
Definition
gray matter
Term
In the corpus quadramina (midbrain) the superior colliculus is responsible for:
Definition
visual reflexes
Term
In the corpus quadramina of the midbrain, the inferior colliculi are responsible for:
Definition
sound (synapse point)
Term
the red nucleus is located in the _______ and is responsible for ________.
Definition
midbrain, motor coordination
Term
the substantia nigra is located in the _______ and is important in reward, addiction and movement. It appears black because of high levels of melanin in neurons that release dopamine.
Definition
midbrain
Term
which group of nuclei scattered throughout the brainstem controls cyclic activities such as the sleep-wake cycle?
Definition
reticular formation
Term
which portion of the diencephalon is responsible for integration of the nervous and endocrine systems?
Definition
hypothalamus
Term
true or false the midbrain originates from the rhomencephalon?
Definition
false
Term
the red nucleus
Definition
receives information from the cerebrum and cerebellum, issues subconscious motor commands that affect upper limb position and background muscle tone.
Term
the term higher brain centers refers to those areas of the brain involved in higher-order functions. These centers would probably include nuclei centers and cortical areas of:
Definition
the cerebrum, diencephalon and cerebellum
Term
where is the site of cerebrospinal fluid production?
Definition
choroid plexus
Term
the pons contains:
Definition
tracts that link the cerebellum with the brain stem.
Term
the dural fold that divides the two cerebellar hemispheres is the:
Definition
falx cerebelli
Term
the cerebrospinal fluid is produced and secreted by:
Definition
ependymal cells
Term
the primary purpose of the blood-brain barrier is to:
Definition
isolate neural tissue in the CNS from the general circulation
Term
the centers in the pons that modify the activity of the respiratory rhythmical centers in the medulla oblongata are the:
Definition
apneustic and pneumotaxic centers
Term
the nucleus gracilis in the medulla oblongata helps relay information for the _______ touch sense and the nucleus cuneatus relays information for the _____ touch sense.
Definition
lower body, upper body (except face)
Term
the final relay point for ascending sensory information that will be projected to the primary sensory cortex is the:
Definition
thalamus
Term
the establishment of emotional states is a function of the:
Definition
limbic system
Term
coordination of learned movement patterns at the subconscious level is performed by the
Definition
cerebellum
Term
what are the 3 important functions of CSF?
Definition
1. cushioning delicate neural structures
2. supporting the brain
3. transporting nutrients, chemical messengers and waste products
Term
Which 3 areas of the brain are not isolated from general circulation by the blood brain barrier?
Definition
1. portions of the hypothalamus where the capillary endothelium is extremely permeable
2. capillaries in the pineal gland
3. capillaries in the choroid plexus
Term
name the 12 cranial nerves in order:
Definition
olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducent, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal
Term
briefly summarize the overall function of the cerebellum
Definition
the cerebellum adjusts voluntary and involuntary motor activities based on sensory information and stored memories of previous experiences.
Term
the only cranial nerves that are attached to the cerebrum are the
Definition
olfactory nerves
Term
If symptoms characteristic of Parkinson disease appear, which part of the mesencephalon is inhibited from secreting a neurotransmitter? Which neurotransmitter is it?
Definition
In Parkinson disease, the substantia nigra is inhibited from secreting the neurotransmitter, dopamine, at the basal nuclei.
Term
Stimulation of which part of the brain would produce sensations of hunger and thirst?
Definition
hypothalamus
Term
the _______ is shaped like a sea horse and appears to be important in the storage and retrieval of long term memories. Which functional system of the brain is this located?
Definition
hippocampus, which is part of the limbic system
Term
what varied roles does the hypothalamus play in the body?
Definition
1. subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions
2. control of autonomic functions
3. coordination of nervous and endocrine systems
4. secretion of hormones
5. production of emotions and drives
6. coordination of autonomic and voluntary functions
7. regulation of body temp
8. control of circadian rhythms
Term
the limbic system or motivational system includes the
Definition
amygdaloid body, cingulate gyrus, dentate gyrups, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus and fornix. The functions of the limbic system involve emotional states and related behavioral drives.
Term
the basal nuclei are:
Definition
masses of gray matter that lie within each hemisphere deep to the floor of the lateral ventricle.
Term
the basal nuclei are involved with:
Definition
subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and the coordination of learned movement patterns. provide general pattern for rhythm.
Term
mesencephalon, the pons and the medulla oblongata comprise the:
Definition
brain stem
Term
why can damage to the medulla oblongata cause death?
Definition
it contains cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory centers
Term
which nuclei in the medulla oblongata are responsible for relaying somatic sensory information to the thalamus?
Definition
nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus
Term
sensory fibers have cell bodies in the:
Definition
dorsal root
Term
motor fibers travel in the:
Definition
ventral root
Term
what are dermatomes and what are some important ones?
Definition
an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve.
some important ones:
# C2 - posterior half of the skull cap
# C3 - area correlating to a high turtle neck shirt
#lumbar nerves sense information from the front of the legs
--dermatomes allow you to pinpoint nerve damage.
Term
The plexus at C1-C4
Definition
innervates superficial neck structures, skin of neck, posterior portion of head.
ansa cervicalis: loop between C1-C3
-phrenic nerve
--from C3-C5 (cervical and brachial plexuses innervates diaphragm)
Term
The plexus from C5-T1:
Definition
the brachial plexus...
5 ventral rami form 3 trunks that separate into 6 divisions then form cords that give rise to these branches/nerves:
-axillary
-radial
-musculocutaneous
-ulnar
-median
Term
The plexus at L1-L4 and the plexus at L4-S5 constitute the:
Definition
lumbar plexus and sacral plexus or lumbosacral plexus
-four major nerves exit and enter lower limb
--obturator
--femoral
--tibial
--common fibular (peroneal)
Term
____ are responsible for vision at low light levels. ____ are responsible for vision when light is brighter.
Definition
rods, cones
Term
what is unique about the fovea and cone/rod distribution?
Definition
it is rod free with a high density of cones
Term
which photoreceptor cells are inhibited by light?
Definition
cones
Term
this type of photoreceptor does not discriminate among colors of light, and allows us to see in dimly lit rooms.
Definition
rods
Term
the frequency of a perceived sound is determined by:
Definition
which part of the cochlear duct is stimulated.
Term
the intensity (volume) of a perceived sound is determined by:
Definition
how many of the hair cells at the location are stimulated.
Term
what is unique about the sense of smell when compared to other senses?
Definition
olfactory stimulation is the only type of sensory information that reaches the cerebral cortex directly.
Term
how is olfactory information relayed to the brain?
Definition
reaches cerebral cortex directly, then a parallel distribution to the limbic system and hypothalamus help explain the profound emotional and behavioral responses, as well as the memories that can be triggered by certain smells.
Term
the olfactory epithelium contains what types of cells?
Definition
olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, and regenerative basal cells (stem cells).
Term
What is olfactory adaptation?
Definition
when you quickly lose the ability to smell something by fatigue.
Term
how do we distinguish between different smells?
Definition
the CNS interprets each smell on the basis of the overall pattern of receptor activity.
Term
the blind spot occurs in the retina where:
Definition
the optic nerve attaches to the retina
Term
sound waves are converted into mechanical movements by the:
Definition
tympanic membrane
Term
the basic receptors in the inner ear are the:
Definition
hair cells
Term
the retina is:
Definition
the neural tunic
Term
at sunset, your vision reverts to _____ based vision.
Definition
rod based
Term
the malleus, incus, and stapes are the tiny bones located in the:
Definition
middle ear
Term
receptors in the saccule and utricle provide sensations of:
Definition
gravity and linear acceleration
Term
the organ of corti is located in the _______ of the inner ear.
Definition
cochlea
Term
trace the olfactory pathway from the time an odor reaches the olfactory epithelium until nerve impulses reach their final destination in the brain:
Definition
axons leaving the olfactory epithelium collect into 20 or more bundles that penetrate the cribiform plate of the ethmoid to reach the olfactory bulbs of the cerebrum. Axons leaving the olfactory bulb travel along the olfactory tract to reach the olfactory cortex, hypothalamus, and portions of the limbic system.
Term
when viewing an object close to you, your lens should be more ________.
Definition
rounded.
Term
damage to the capula of the lateral semicircular duct would interfere with the perception of:
Definition
horizontal rotation
Term
when viewing an object close to you, your lens should be more:
Definition
rounded
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