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23. Immunology
N/A
157
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
12/06/2012

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Term
What are the three main functions of the immune system?
Definition
  • defense against invading pathogens and parasitic fungi, protozoa, and smaller animals
  • removal of worn out cells and tissue debris from wound healing and tissue repair
  • identification and destuction of abnormal or mutant cells
Term
The first line of defense is made up of ____________.
Definition
physical barriers
Term
The second line of defense is made up of ______________.
Definition
the innate immune system
Term
The third line of defense is made up of _____________.
Definition
adaptive (acquired) immune system
Term
3
Definition
Term
What ability do the immune responses depend on?
Definition
the ability to distinguish self from non-self
Term
What is non-specific or innate immunity?
Definition
defenses that come into play whether or not the body has had prior experiences with the offending agent
Term
What is specific or acquired immunity?
Definition
the acquired (or adaptive ) immune system that selectively attacks foreign agents to which the body ahse previously been exposed
Term
What is the function of bone marrow?
Definition
origin of all blood cells and the site of maturational processing for B lymphocytes
Term
What is the function of lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, the appendix, and gut-associated lymphoidal tissue?
Definition
  • exchange lymphocytes with the lymph
  • resident lymphoctes produce antibodies and sensitized T cells, which are released into the lymph
  • resident macrophages remove microbes and other particulate debris from the lymph
Term
What is the function of the speen?
Definition
  • exchanges lymphocytes with the blood 
  • resident lymphocytes produce antibodies and sensitized T cells which are released into the blood
  • resident macrophages remove microbes and othe rparticulate debris, most notbaly, worn out red blood cells 
  • stores a small percentage of red blood cells which can be added to the blood by splenic contraction as needed 
Term
What is the function of the thymus?
Definition
  • site of maturational processing for T lymphocytes 
  • secretes the hormone thymosin
Term
7
Definition
Term
What are the five types of leukocytes?
Definition
neutrophils, lymphoctes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils
Term
What are the two sub groups of luekocytes?
Definition
polymorphonuclear granulocytes and mononusclear agranulocytes
Term
What are the types of granulocytes?
Definition
nuetrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
Term
What are the types of agranulocytes?
Definition
luekocytes and monocytes
Term
What white blood cells are exclusively non-specific?
Definition
monocytes, basophils, and eosinophils
Term
What type of luekocytes are specific? Explain.
Definition
lymphocytes, except for Natural Killer cells
Term
Explain the category that neutrophils fall under? 
Definition
non-specific but can be specific when directed by antibody targeting
Term
Non-specific immune response is present from _____.
Definition
birth
Term
What are the machanical barriers involved in the first line of defense?
Definition
  • waxy cuticle of leaves, exoskeleton of insects and shells, skin
  • coughing, sneezing, tears, urine
Term
What chemical barriers are involved in the first line of defense?
Definition
  • antimicrobial secretions from skin, slaiva, tears, and milk
  • vaginal secretions
  • gastric acid and protease from the stomach
Term
What biological barriers are involved in the first line of defense?
Definition
commensal flora within genitourinary and gastro-intestinal tract
Term
12
Definition
Term
What enzyme is part of the first line of defense and cna be found on the skin and in the saliva?
Definition
lysozyme
Term
What are the typical avenues of pathogen entry?
Definition
skin, eyes, digestive tract, respiratory tract, reproductive tract
Term
What is all involved in innate immunity?
Definition
  • barrier tissues and glands
  • inflammation
  • the complement system
  • inteferon
  • natural killer cells
  • symbiotic bacteria
Term
What is the first response of the immune system to infection?
Definition
inflammation
Term
What does inflammation involve?
Definition
a sophisticated and coordinated action involving mast cells, neutrophils, and macrophages 
Term
What is the complement system?
Definition
a biochemical cascade that attacks the surface of foreign cells
Term
What is the complement system?
Definition
a biochemical cascade that attacks the surface foreign cells
Term
What activates the complement system?
Definition
activated by complement bindings to antibodies that have attached to these microbes
Term
What does the cascade effect of the complement system result in?
Definition
results in recruiting immune cells, increased vascualr permability, and marking for destruction
Term
The second line of defense for innate immunity involves ________ and _________ barriers.
Definition
humoral, chemical
Term
What is the function of interferons?
Definition
to defend against virus infection
Term
What is the function of natural killer cells?
Definition
destroy virus infected cells and cancer cells
Term
What are the three types of phagocytes?
Definition
macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells
Term
What is inflammation?
Definition
an innate, non-specific response to foreign invasion and tissue damage 
Term
What processes are all involved in the inflammatory response?
Definition
  • defense by resident tissue macrophages
  • integration by mast cells
  • localized edema
  • clotting
  • emigration of leukocytes
  • leukocyte proliferation
  • phagocytotic destruction of tagged and untagged bacteria 
  • tissue repair
Term
In what ways is the skin part of the immune response?
Definition
  • sewat glands: antimocrobial peptides dermacidin
  • sebaceous glands: sebum, oily secretion to maintain skin integration
  • melanocytes: melanin, protects from sunlight
  • keratinocytes: interleukin 1, inflammation
Term
Mast cells release _______ when there is an infection.
Definition
histamine
Term
Local arteriolar vasodilation as a result of the histamine response leads to ________ and _______. 
Definition
redness, heat
Term
Increased local capillary permeability as a result of the histamine response leads to ______  and ________.
Definition
swelling, pain
Term
What is the process called when leukocytes immagrate into the tissues from the blood?
Definition
diapedesis
Term
What are the steps that happen during pahogocytosis?
Definition
  • the macrophage engulfs the bacteria, becoming a phagosome
  • lysosome withing the phagosome digests the bacteria 
  • the debris is egested and antigen presentation occurs 
Term
_______ and _______ supress the inflammatory response.
Definition
  • salicylates, glucocorticoids
Term
What does the comlement system do?
Definition
it kills microorganisms directly, both on its own and in conjunction with antibodies and also augments the inflammatory response
Term
The complement system belongs to the ________ immune system, however __________.
Definition
innate; it can be recruited and brought into action by the adaptive immune system
Term
The complement system has the potential to be ___________.
Definition
extremely damaging to host tissues
Term
How is the comlement system regulated?
Definition
by complement control proteins which are present at higher concentrations in the blood plasma than the complement proteins themselves 
Term
How does the complement system know to activate?
Definition
by exposure to particular carbohydrate chains present on the surfaces of microorganisms
Term
How does the adaptive immune response know to activate?
Definition
by exposure to antibodies produced against a specific foreign invader
Term
What does MAC stand for?
Definition
membrane attack complex
Term
What activates the MAC?
Definition
complement proteins C5, C6, C7, C8, and C9
Term
What does the MAC do?
Definition
it forms a pore-like channel on the plasma membrane of the target cell which leads to leakage and destruction of the cell
Term
With regards to interferons, what happens when a cells is first invaded by a virus?
Definition
  • the virus enters the cell
  • the cell releases interferon
  • interferon binds with receptors on univaded cells
  • uninvaded cells produce inactive enzymes capable of breaking down viral messenger RNA and inhibiting protein synthesis
Term
What happens when a cell that has been acted on by an interferon is invaded by a virus?
Definition
  • virus-blocking enzymes are activated
  • virus is unable to multiply in newly invaded cells
Term
When does acquired immunity take over?
Definition
 when a specific antigen passes the body's passive defenses
Term
Acquired immunity enhances the activity of ________.
Definition
the non-specific immune system
Term
What are B-lymphocytes?
Definition
antibodies
Term
What are the two types of T lymphocytes?
Definition
Killer T cells and Helper T cells
Term
What is anothe rname for killer T cells?
Definition
cytotocix T cells of CD8 cells
Term
What are killer T cells?
Definition
a sub group of T cells that kills cells infected with viruses  or other pathogens or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional
Term
T cells are (specific/ non-specific). 
Definition
specific
Term
When are killer T cells activated?
Definition
when their T cell receptor (TCR) binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell
Term
What is anothe rname for helper T cells?
Definition
CD4 cells
Term
What are heper T cells?
Definition
integrators that coordinate the development of antigen stimulated B cells into antibody secreting cells
Term
What do helper T cells do?
Definition
they enhance the activity of killer T cells and activate macrophages 
Term
The adaptive immune system is thought to have arisen in the ____________.
Definition
first jawed vertebrates 
Term
The adaptive immune system provides the ability to ____________________.
Definition
recongize and remember specific pathogens 
Term
Acquired immunity includes ___________ and __________ responses.
Definition
cell-mediated, antibody-mediated (humoral) 
Term
What is involved in humoral immunity?
Definition
  • antibody-mediated, B lymphocytes
  • recognizes free-existing foreign invaders such as bacterium and their toxins and viruses and combat them by secreting antibodies
Term
What is involved in cell-mediated immunity?
Definition
  • T lymphocytes
  • recognize and destroy body cells gone wary, including virus infected cells and cancer cells
Term
Where do B cells and T cells originate from before differentiating into T and B cells?
Definition
  • red blood cells, platelets, monocytes, and granulocytes act as hemopoietic precursor cells and become bone marrow lymphocytes
Term
Where do B cells come from?
Definition
the bone marrow
Term
Where do T cells originate from?
Definition
the thymus 
Term
An ______ induces an immune response against itself.
Definition
antigen
Term
What is an antigen?
Definition
a large, complex, unique molecule that triggers a specific immune response against itself when it gains entry into the body
Term
What is an antibody?
Definition
gamma globulin proteins that are found in the blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects (antigens), such as bacteria and viruses 
Term
What are the three principle roles of B cells?
Definition
  • make antibodies against antigens 
  • perform the role of Antigen Presenting Cells (APC)
  • develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction 
Term
Where does the name B cell originate from?
Definition
Bursa of the Fibricius (site of hematopoiesis for birds)
Term
Where are B lymphocytes produced?
Definition
in the bone marrow (except for in rabits)
Term
What happens to immature B cells to be mature?
Definition
they migrate to the spleen and differentiate into mature B cells
Term
How many different types of B cells does the human body make each day?
Definition
millions 
Term
What do all these millions of B cells do?
Definition
they circulate in the blood and lymphatic system for surveillance
Term
Each B cell has a unique _________ (___________) for each antigen.
Definition
receptor protein, immunoglobulin
Term
What happens upon binding of a B cell to an antigen and it recieves and additional signal from T helper cells?
Definition
it further undergoes differentiation into a plasma B cell or memory B cell
Term
What is another name for the B cell response?
Definition
humoral response 
Term
What happens when there is a new antigen present in the body (prior to T cell interference)?
Definition
  • the antigen-antibody complex is engulfed into the B cell and partially digested
  • the antigen is displayed on the cell surface by a special receptor protein (MHC II) for recognition by helper T cells
Term
What happens once a T cell intervenes?
Definition
the B cell is activated by the helper T cell to divide and produce secreted antibodies which circulate in the serum and lymph
Term
What happens to some of the B cells?
Definition
they become memory B cells to produce antibody at a low rate for a long time (long term immunity) and to respond quickly when the antigen is encountered again
Term
What is the humoral response regulated by?
Definition
a class of T cells called supressor T cells
Term
What happens to the structure of a B cell once it is activated? Why?
Definition
it has a huge increase in ER because it starts to produce antibodies
Term
What are the two types of B cells?
Definition
plasma B cell and memory B cells
Term
What is the function of plasma B cells?
Definition
  • they produce a large amount of antibodies 
Term
What do antibodies do?
Definition
they assist in the destruction of anitgens by binding to them and making them and easier target for phagocytes and activation of the complement system
Term
How many antibodies do plasma B cells make?
Definition
2000 per second
Term
What is the result of plasma B cells carrying out a high production of antibodies?
Definition
they are short lived (5-6 days)
Term
What are memory B cells formed from?
Definition
activated B cells
Term
Antibodies are ____ shaped.
Definition
Y
Term
How are antibodies classified?
Definition
according to properties of their tail portion
Term
Explain the structure of an antibody.
Definition
the inside long chain is the heavy chain and on the outside of the arms is the light chain
Term
Antibodies largely _________ innate immune responses to promote antigen _____________.
Definition
amplify, destruction
Term
What are the five main functions of antibodies?
Definition
  • agglutination makes pathogens clump together
  • neutralize the toxins produced by bacteria
  • opsonization or the enhancement of phagocytosis
  • stimulation of killer cells
  • activation of complement system
Term
How can agglutinization happens?
Definition
it can happen because of the Y shape of the antobodies: this mean they can bind to two antigens at one time
Term
How do antibodies activate the complement system?
Definition
  • An inactive C1 complement molecule binds with the antibody that is bound to an antigen
  • the inactive C1 complement molecule is activated through this bond
  • this leads to the formation of the C5 through C9 membrane attack complex 
  • this MAC forms holes in the foreign cell, casuing lysis of the cell
Term
How do antibodies enahance phagocytosis?
Definition
several antibodies can bind to the same foreign cell, making a large antigen-antibody complex so it it is easier for a phagosytes to find and engulf
Term
What happens during stimulation of killer cells by antibodies?
Definition
a killer cell binds to an antibody that is bound to an antigen which causes the lysis of the foreign cell
Term
_____________ accounts for the specificity of antibody production. What theory goes along with this?
Definition
clonal selection; clonal selection theory
Term
What happens to selected clones?
Definition
they differentiate into active plasma cells and dormant memory cells 
Term
How does the primary immune response and secondary immune response compare on a graph?
Definition
  • the secondary immune response relative antibody response peaks much higher and sooner than the primary immune response
Term
Active immunity is ______ generated. Passive immunity is _________.
Definition
self, borrowed
Term
What do lymphocytes only respond to?
Definition
antigens presented to them by antigen presenting cells or macrophages
Term
What happens when a macrophage engulfs an invading bacteria?
Definition
  • when it engulfs the bacteria, it secretes interleukin 1, which enhances B cell proliferation and antibody secretion
  • the macrophage processes and presents the bacterial antigen to B and T lymphocyte clones specific to the antigen
Term
What do activated helper T cells do?
Definition
they secrete B cell growth factor that enhances B cell proliferation and antibody secretion 
Term
T lymphocytes are associated with ___________ immunity.
Definition
cell-mediated 
Term
How are T lymphocytes distinguishable from other lymphocytes?
Definition
by the presence of a special receptor on their cell surface called a T cell receptor
Term
Where are all T cells produced?
Definition
in the bone marrow
Term
What percenatge of thymocytes develop into mature immunocompetent T cells?
Definition
2%
Term
What are the two types of T cells?
Definition
cytotoxic and helper-T cells
Term
What are the three main functions of helper T cells?
Definition
  • coordinate the development antigen stimulated B cells into antibody secreting cells 
  • enhance the activity of the apropriate cytotoxic T cells 
  • activate macrophages 
Term
What percentage of T cells are helper T cells?
Definition
60-80%
Term
With regards to other immune cells, what else do helper T cells do?
Definition
they secrete chemicals that regulate other immune cells
Term
What chemicals do helper T cells release?
Definition
cytokines: T-cell growth factor, interleukin 2, chemotaxins
Term
Cytotoxic T cells are made up of _______ cells.
Definition
2 T
Term
Where are cytokines secreted from?
Definition
  • by immune cells (helper T cells)
Term
What do cytokines do?
Definition
they are involved in signaling for cell communication and they activate and recruit more immune cells to increase the system's immune response to the pathogen
Term
What do the chemotaxins do that are secreted by helper T cells?
Definition
they lure more neutrophils and macrophages
Term
What happens when a T cell is presented to an antigen?
Definition
its receptor binds to the antigen and it is stimulated to divide and produce 
Term
What do helper T cells do to B cells?
Definition
they activate B cells that are bound to an antigen
Term
Wjat do supressor T cells do?
Definition
they regulate the overall response
Term
What do cytotoxic killer T cells do?
Definition
kills cells with antigen bound in MHC-I 
Term
What does MHC stand for?
Definition
major histocomatability complex
Term
Where do T cells mature?
Definition
in the thymus
Term
How many kinds of T cells are there? Explain the receptors.
Definition
millions; each produces a different receptor in the cell membrane
Term
Explain the composition of the recptors on T cells.
Definition
  • each receptor is composed of one molecule, each of two different proteins 
  • each receptor binds a specific antigen but has only one binding site
Term
What antigens do T cell receptors recognize?
Definition
only antigens which are "presented" to it within another membrane protein of the MHC type
Term
What types of cells use MHC-II receptorsfor presentation?
Definition
T cells, B cells, and macrophages
Term
What types of cells use MHC-I receptors for presentation? What is this often responsible for?
Definition
all other cells; responsile for most tissue graft rejection
Term
Explain the immune repsonse that occurs when a virus invades a host cell?
Definition
  • the viral antigen is displayed on the surface of the host cell alongside the cell's self-antigen 
  • the cytotoxic T cell recognizes and binds with a specific foreign antigen (viral antigen) in association with the self antigen
  • the cytotoxic T cell releases chemicals that destroy the atatcked cell before the virus can enter the nucleus and start to replicate
Term
Explain where class I MHC markers are found and who they are recognized by.
Definition
found on the surface of all cells and they are recognized by only cytotoxic T cells
Term
Explain where class II MHC markers can be found and who they are recognized by.
Definition
they are found on the surface of special immune cells (B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages) and they are recognized only by helper T cells
Term
What are the receptors for the antigen on B cells?
Definition
antibody
Term
What do B cells bind with?
Definition
extracellular antigens such as bacteria, free viruses, and other circulating foreign material
Term
What do T cells bind with?
Definition
foreign antigen in association with self-antigen, such as virus infected cells
Term
Do T cells lead to the formation of memory cells?
Definition
yes
Term
What is the secretory product of B lymphocytes?
Definition
antibodies 
Term
What is the secretory product of T lymphocytes?
Definition
cytokines
Term
Relative to B cells, what is the lifespan of T cells like?
Definition
long
Term
What is the function of B lymphocytes?
Definition
  • they help eliminate free foreign invaders by enhancing non-specific immune reponses against them 
  • produce immunity against most bacteria and few viruses
Term
What is the function of T lymphocytes?
Definition
  • lyse virus infected cells and cencer cells
  • provide immunity against most viruses and fungi and few bacteria 
  • aid B cells in antibody production
Term
Explain the process of active immunity up to a secondary exposure.
Definition
  • infection of pathogen or injection of vaccine
  • immune response
  • antibodies produced and memory cells retained
  • infection destroyed
  • infection by the same pathogen
  • new, rapid immune response
Term
Explain the process of passive immunity up to secondary exposure.
Definition
  • antibodies acquired from a host mother, via placenta or milk (colostrum) 
  • infection destroyed
  • no memory cells created because the body has not produced an immune response itself 
  • further infection possible by the same pathogen
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