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| An ideology opposed to all or much of institutionalized government |
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| Implies chaos, disorder, and confusion resulting from the absence of government. Few anarchists advocate such a state of affairs. |
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| They hope to free people so that they can make their greatest possible contribution to society as a whole. |
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| They want to free people to make the greatest possible personal advancement. |
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| 1756-1836) Protestant minister, he eventually became an atheist and founded anarchism. |
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| (1759-1797) Perhaps history’s earliest feminist, whose avant-garde ideas about women’s equality scandalized Europe. William Godwin, the founder of anarchism, became her husband. |
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| 1809-1865) A leading anarchist socialist, sometimes called the founder of modern anarchism. |
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| A theory espoused by David Ricardo and amplified by Marx suggesting the true value of any item was determined by the amount of labor it takes to produce it. |
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| (1772-1837) An influential utopian socialist. See also “utopian socialism” |
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| (1828-1910) A famed author and pacifist anarchist. |
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| (1814-1876) The founder of violent anarchism. He also competed with Marx for control of the international socialist movement. |
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| Vagabonds, prostitutes, and other social outcasts whom Bakunin wanted to mold into a revolutionary force. |
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| Russian populist anarchists of the late nineteenth century. |
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| (1842-1921) A scientist and a communistic anarchist. |
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| A theory developed by Herbert Spencer, claiming the wealthy were superior to others and therefore benefited society more than others. If the poor perished from exploitative policies, the human race would be strengthened. |
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| (1820-1903) The founder of Social Darwinism, he claimed that the wealthy were the select of nature and had the right accumulate wealth at the expense of inferior beings. Spencer, not Charles Darwin, coined the phrase “survival of the fittest.” |
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| (1853-1932) An implacable violent anarchist who demanded that leftists should engage in more revolutionary activities and less talk. |
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| (1869-1940) The leading anarchist in American history. Sometimes known as “Red Emma. |
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| An anarchist theory of the mid-1800s; its goal was the complete destruction of society. |
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| 1806-1856) A leading individualist anarchist. He encouraged each person to ignore society and to focus only on “ownness,” the self. |
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| (1905-1982) Usually associated with libertarianism, her theories are rich with anarchistic implications. A Russian-born thinker, advocated objectivism in novels and journals. This theory lionizes individualism and relegates collectivism to irrelevance. |
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| Militant Civilian Militias |
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| : Right-wing conspiratorial groups who believe that the U.S. government and other powerful institutions threaten their individual liberty and well-being. Racism, Christian fundamentalism, and survivalism are also themes commonly found among militia members. |
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| A very old term that originally meant a local communal relationship among a small number of people. Today it refers to a system based on Marxist-Leninist ideology. |
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| The application of collectivist economic to a national economy. Socialism developed only after the Industrial Revolution increased productivity enough to make it possible to provide plenty for everyone. |
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| A moral goal that must exist for a system to be truly socialist. This goal is to free people from material need, allowing them to develop and refine themselves as human beings. |
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| : The 1930s policies of Franklin Roosevelt, which tempered capitalism with government regulation of business, collective bargaining for labor, and welfare state institutions including Social Security, housing loan guarantees, and welfare programs for the needy. |
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| Organic Theory of the State |
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| The belief that the state is similar to a living organism and that people are the cells of that organism. |
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| (1760-1797) History’s first socialist, he talked about creating the workers’ revolution as early as the 1790s |
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| Beginning with the Utopian movement, this variant of socialism suggests that people should work and share in common because of moral imperatives. This kind of socialism is distinct from Marxism or scientific socialism. |
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| The term used by its supporters to describe Marxism; they called it scientific because it was based on certain principles of human conduct that Marxists believed were inviolable laws. |
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| A humanitarian socialist movement that unsuccessfully tried to create ideal collectivist experiments that would be imitated by the rest of society. |
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| A theory espoused by by David Ricardo and amplified by Marx suggesting the true value of any item was determined by the amount of labor it takes to produce it. |
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| (1760-1825) A utopian socialist. |
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| (1771-1858) A self-made industrialist who recoiled at the suffering capitalism caused ordinary people. Wanting to reform capitalism, he became a utopian socialist and actually coined the term socialism. |
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| (1748-1832) The creator of utilitarianism and positivist law, he founded contemporary liberalism. He was also an important force in Britain’s early nineteenth-century reform movement. |
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| (1772-1837) An influential utopian socialist. |
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| (1818-1883) A scholar and the leader of the international socialist movement. He developed a theory of historical development-Marxism-based on the assumption that economic factors were the primary human motivation and that history was propelled by struggle among competing social classes. |
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| : (1820-1895) The son of a wealthy Prussian textile manufacturer who became a close friend of Marx in 1844 and remained his collaborator until Marx died in 1883. |
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| A term to describe Locke’s notion in which people had to toil every waking hour just to make ends meet. |
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| The belief that all social and political features are conditioned by the economic environment. |
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| Marx argued that economics was the foundation of any society, and that the economic foundation preconditioned the rest of society (superstructure). |
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| All elements, according to Marx, that are built on the economic foundation of the society, including art, values, government, education, ideology and the like. |
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| The Marxist theory of history suggesting that human progress results from struggle between the exploiter and the exploited classes. This dynamic, Marx argued, would inevitably lead to socialism |
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| 1770-1831) A German political philosopher whose ideas were not only important in their own right but also greatly influenced both Marx and Mussolini. |
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| Economic specialization that Marx claimed led to the creation of private property, social classes, and human exploitation |
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| The wealthy merchant and the professional class that became the dialectical challenge to the feudal society |
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| Industrial workers who, according to Marx, are exploited by capitalists and are supposed to rebel and eventually create a communist democratic utopia. |
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| Theory of Self-Alienation |
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| Marx’s belief that bourgeois exploitation so denigrated working conditions that laborers came to hate their work-that is, their major means of self-creative expression. Thus, workers in their capitalist societies became alienated from themselves. |
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| Marx’s argument that the capitalist forced the workers to surrender their product for less than its true worth. The difference between the workers’ wages and the true value of the item was the surplus value or profit. |
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| David Ricardo’s argument that the capitalist would pay the worker no more than a subsistence wage. |
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| Vanguard of the Proletariat |
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Definition
| : A small, dedicated elite of professional revolutionaries who would lead the proletariat to socialism through revolution. The Bolsheviks were the Russian vanguard and the Comintern and the internal vanguard |
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| Dictatorship of the Proletariat |
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| : A temporary tyranny of the workers proposed by Marx that follows the revolution and lasts until all non-proletarian classes had been removed, at which time the state would wither away and a democratic utopia would evolve. |
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| The hope that true socialists will enjoy work and will voluntarily share the product of their labor with the whole community. |
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| a group of socialists led by Engels and Karl Kautsky who followed the teachings of Marx without significant deviation. The movement failed because of its rigid dogmatism. |
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| : (1854- 1938), A German Marxist who became the leader of the Orthodox Marxists following Engel’s death. |
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| : (1850-1932) A revisionist socialist. See Revisionism |
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| 1806-1873), A British philosopher who contributed greatly to the development of democratic socialism by questioning the assumptions that people are naturally selfish and that government should have no economic role. |
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| Founded in 1884, the Fabian society, cast in the tradition of John Stuart Mill and Robert Owen, advocated that the British adopt socialism gradually and peacefully. |
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| Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov Lenin |
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Definition
| 1870-1924), A Russian revolutionary who first adapted Marxism to a practical political situation; the founder of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. |
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| Followers of Lenin who believed that violence was necessary to bring about socialism and that Russia could be taken in a coup led by them. They were renamed the Communist Party after they came to power in Russia. |
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Definition
| an organization, also called the Third International, created by Lenin to stimulate communist revolutions throughout the world, but under Stalin it became merely an instrument of Russian foreign policy. |
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| Imperialism (as used by Lenin |
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Definition
| The most advanced state of capitalism. It followed the stages of industrial capitalism and finance capitalism and represented the exportation of exploitation. |
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| Lenin’s theory that Imperial Russia was the weakest link in the capitalist chain because it had exploited its workers mercilessly to make up for the advantages enjoyed by imperialist capitalists. This increased exploitation pushed the Russian proletariat to revolution before the proletarian classes of the more advanced industrial states. |
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| ): When his efforts to immediately socialize the Soviet Union failed, Lenin initiated the NEP reforms, privatizing small factories, retail, and agriculture, while finance, heavy industry transportation, communications, and foreign trade remained under state control. Stalin ended it in 1929 with the planned economy. |
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| (1876-1953), A Bolshevik conspirator who succeeded Lenin and became the unquestioned leader of the Soviet Union. Although he made the Soviet Union a first-rate military and industrial power while successfully defeating the Nazi invasion, he imposed a cruel totalitarian system on his country, executing or imprisoning millions of people. |
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| (1879-1940), A brilliant Bolshevik revolutionary who was Lenin’s intellectual equal but was no match for Stalin’s ruthlessness; he suffered exile and was finally assassinated on Stalin’s order. |
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| A theory, supported by Leon Trotsky and Mao Zedong, favoring revolution as the best way to achieve meaningful reform even after Marxists have taken power. |
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| (1894-1971), The successor to Stalin and a political reformer in the Soviet Union. |
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| Khrushchev’s policy of accommodation with the West, based on the recognition that neither side could win in a nuclear war. |
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| born in 1931), General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until its collapse in 1991. His profound reforms failed to prevent the Soviet collapse, but even so, he will probably be remembered as one of the twentieth century’s most important leaders. |
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| 1931-2007), The Russian president who courageously led Russia in succeeding from the Soviet Union, causing its collapse in 1992. However, his alcoholism and the corruption of his government forced him to resign in disgrace in 1999. |
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| (born in 1952), Boris Yeltsin’s successor to the Russian presidency in 1999. He served two terms until required to stand down by term limits. Succeeded in 2008 by his protégé, Dmitry Medvedev, Putin continues to dominate Russia as prime minister. Putin’s authoritarian policies have apparently snuffed out a fledgling democracy. |
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| 1866-1925), A Chinese physician and revolutionary leader. He inspired the movement that eventually led to the ouster of the Chinese emperor in 1911. |
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| 1893-1976), A Chinese revolutionary and political leader. He founded the People’s Republic of China and adapted Marxism to an Asian peasant society. |
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| : A Chinese nationalist political party founded by Dr. Sun Yi Xian and taken over by Jiang Jieshi after Sun’s death. |
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| (1934-1935), A massive retreat from south to north China by the communists. A power struggle took place during the march, with Mao emerging as the dominant Chinese political figure. |
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| (1958-1961), An attempt to bring China into the modern industrial age through maximum use of the vast Chinese labor force; it failed miserably. |
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| Great Cultural Revolution |
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Definition
| 1966-1969), A movement in which the Chinese radicals were unleashed against the moderate bureaucrats and intellectuals. The radicals favored greater personal sacrifice and stronger commitment to the goals of the revolution, whereas the moderates wanted to produce more consumer goods. |
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| : (1904-1997), A pragmatic reformer who enjoyed great power in China, Deng managed to survive Mao and was responsible for the current modernization of China. |
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| (born 1942), The president of the People’s Republic of China and the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party. His policies seem to indicate that he is a genuine populist, but not a political liberal. |
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| Marxist ideology heavily influenced by populism and traditional Chinese values. Like the ideologies of other developing countries, Maoism is heavily focused on anti-colonialism. |
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| The belief that the common people are the soul of society. Among the great political leaders ascribing to this romantic notion are Thomas Jefferson, the Narodniki of Russia, and China’s Mao Zedong. |
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| A Maoist doctrine calling upon the masses of China to carry out the goals of the revolution. |
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| : Lenin’s term for what he believed is the final stage of capitalism, in which capitalists exploit foreign labor classes in order to continue to increase profits but to avoid an uprising by their domestic workers. |
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| (born in 1927), A Cuban revolutionary and the founder of the current Cuban government. |
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| born in 1931), A revolutionary and longtime Cuban minister of defense, he succeeded Fidel as president in 2006, upon his brother’s resignation for health reasons. So far, he has carried out several modest reforms. |
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| Fidel Castro’s adaption of Marxism, which combines dialectic and idealistic rhetoric with anti-Yankee policies to create the new Cuba. |
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| 1883-1945), An Italian reactionary revolutionary, the originator of fascism and the leader of the Italian fascist state. |
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Definition
| The Italian title for the supreme leader, as used by Mussolini. |
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| : A 1922 demonstration in which several thousand supporters of Mussolini successfully marched on Rome to demand that he be given power. |
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| The treaty ending WWI. It imposed very harsh conditions on Germany and was blamed by Hitler for Germany’s severe postwar problems. |
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| The constitutional government of Germany before Hitler came to power and abolished it. |
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| (1889-1945) A reactionary revolutionary and the founder of the ideology of National Socialism and the Nazi State. |
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| National Socialist German Workers (Nazi) Party |
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| : The official name of the German Nazi party. |
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| A mystical power within the German people that supposedly makes them superior to all others. |
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| (1813-1883) An operatic composer who popularized German mythology and the foundation for anti-Semitism. |
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| The idealization of the Aryan superman. Richard Wagner immortalized this character in his operas, and Hitler made him the symbol of the Nazi racial ideal. |
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| (1788-1860) A German irrationalist philosopher who thought that life was a meaningless struggle beyond human understanding. |
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| (1844-1900), A German philosopher who thought that power and strength were desirable qualities that justified all things. |
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| An uncontrollable force spoken of in the Nazi ideology that inspires people to try to dominate one another. |
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| An uncontrollable force spoken of in the Nazi ideology that inspires people to try to dominate one another. |
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| (1816-1882), A French noble who tried to prove that the French aristocracy was superior to the peasantry and should therefore rule France. In doing so, he claimed that the Aryan race was superior to all others. His theories deeply influenced Adolph Hitler. |
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| Houston Stewart Chamberlain |
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| : (1855-1927), A friend and later the son-in-law of Richard Wagner, who shared Wagner’s anti-Semitic views and developed a theory based on those views which were later admired by Adolph Hitler. |
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Definition
| 1770-1831) A German political philosopher whose ideas were not only important in their own right but also greatly influenced both Marx and Mussolini. |
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Definition
| The concept that the state is the focal point of human existence and that all citizens should therefore give it absolute obedience. |
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| Organic Theory of the State |
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Definition
| The belief that the state is similar to a living organism and that people are the cells of that organism. |
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Definition
| The fascist belief that the state is a living being with a will or personality of its own. The will of the state is more powerful than that of any person or group within the state and must be obeyed without question. |
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| The economic system used in fascist Italy in which the state controlled the people by controlling the labor unions and businesses. Production and prices were regulated, while strikes and boycotts were outlawed. |
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Definition
| A radical theory suggesting that trade unions should become the primary social and political units in the society. |
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Term
| Militant Civilian Militia |
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Definition
| Right-wing conspiratorial groups who believe that the U.S. government and other powerful institutions threaten their individual liberty and well-being. Racism, Christian fundamentalism, and survivalism are also themes commonly found among militia members. |
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Definition
| A condition in which wealthy nations gain control of developing states by making vast economic investments in those states. |
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| : A reactionary ideology suggesting that society should be governed by the principles of the Koran rather than by the dictates of secular values. Iran is currently a state subscribing to this approach. |
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| A Muslim terrorist organization. While Osama bin Laden is the titular leader of the group, his influence is somewhat muted by his ill health and the fact that its various cells may not be under his absolute control at any given time. |
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| A movement centered primarily in the Roman Catholic Church in Latin America, where some priests, nuns, and laypersons are committed to a socially and politically active Church to bring economic improvement, social advancement, and political power to the poor. |
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Definition
| See authoritarian dictatorship and totalitarian state |
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Definition
| Developing World dictatorships in which the leaders claim to be carrying out the popular will. |
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Term
| Authoritarian Dictatorship |
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Definition
| A dictatorship in which the government has an extraordinary amount of control over society’s political institutions (the police, the courts, the military) but does not control every major institution in society, as does a totalitarian dictator |
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Definition
| A state in which the government controls the economic, social, and cultural as well as political aspects of a society. Totalitarianism was not possible before the development of early 20th century technology, but the late 20th century advent of computers, the Internet, fax machines, cell phones, has now made totalitarianism less likely. |
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Definition
| The belief that women are oppressed by men and that the oppression should be eradicated. |
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Definition
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| 1759-1797) Perhaps history’s earliest feminist, whose avant-garde ideas about women’s equality scandalized Europe. William Godwin, the founder of anarchism, became her husband. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1756-1836) Protestant minister, he eventually became an atheist and founded anarchism. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1806-1873), British philosopher who contributed greatly to the development of democratic socialism by questioning the assumptions that people are naturally selfish and that government should have no economic role. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1818-1883) A scholar and the leader of the international socialist movement. He developed a theory of historical development-Marxism-based on the assumption that economic factors were the primary human motivation and that history was propelled by struggle among competing social classes. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1815-1902), An early leader of the suffragist movement advocating that women should be given the vote in the United States. In 1848 she helped lead the first convention on women’s rights. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1820-1906), A leading figure in the struggle to secure the vote for women in the United States. |
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Definition
| (1869-1940) The leading anarchist in American history. Sometimes known as “Red Emma. |
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Term
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Definition
| 1838-1927), An advocate of equal rights for women, open-mindedness, free love, and women’s suffrage. |
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Term
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Definition
| : (1921-2006), A social critic whose book The Feminine Mystique gained international acclaim and helped launch the feminist movement |
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Definition
| The belief that women should join with men to reform the institutions, policies, and attitudes that treat women as inferior to men. |
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Definition
| The belief that men are incapable of significant change; therefore, women must gain control of the levers of power and eradicate sexism without the help or cooperation of men. |
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Definition
| The most extreme form of feminism, it advocates that women should exist totally apart from men, relying on artificial insemination to propagate the species |
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Definition
| An ideology advocating human restraint in the use of resources and assuming a cooperative posture toward nature. |
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Definition
| The view that humans are the central focus in the universe, and, therefore the value of all other things is to be measured relative to them |
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| 1766-1834), An English economists who postulated that since population increases more rapidly than food, calamity awaits those nations that do not exercise “moral restraint.” |
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Definition
| The most extreme belief about the environment’s relationship to humans. Human beings, it suggests, are no more important than any other species, and therefore they have no right to mold nature to their will. |
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Definition
| The view that humans should nurture and protect nature so as to preserve enough of the earth’s resources for humans and other species survive. |
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Definition
| The anti-anthropocentric concept in environmental ethics that the universe must be seen and understood as a whole. Humans, therefore, should see themselves as no more than a part of nature rather than apart from it. |
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