Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.

The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. 

Individuals seek to reduce this gap, or “dissonance”

Desire to reduce dissonance depends on 

Importance of elements creating dissonance

Degree of individual influence over elements

Rewards involved in dissonance

Importance of the attitude

Specificity of the attitude

Accessibility of the attitude

Social pressures on the individual

Direct experience with the attitude

Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that has already occurred.

A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job.

Measured with:

Single global rating

Summation score

Behavior directed toward leaving the organization.

Active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.

Passively waiting for conditions to improve.

Allowing conditions to worsen.

The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others; measurable traits a person exhibits.

Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.

Heredity

Environment

Situation

A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types.

Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)

Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)

Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)

Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)

Can be a valuable too for self-awareness and career guidance

Should not be used as a selection tool because it has not been related to job performance!

Extroversion
Sociable, gregarious, and assertive

Agreeableness
Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness
Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.

Emotional Stability
Calm, self-confident, secure under stress (positive), versus nervous, depressed, and insecure under stress (negative).

Openness to Experience
Curious, imaginative, artistic, and sensitive

Rorschach Inkblot Test 

Thematic Apperception Test

Self-esteem

Locus of Control

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves. 

The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate.

Internals (Internal locus of control) 

Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them.

Externals (External locus of control)
Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.

Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.

Conditions Favoring High Machs

Direct interaction with others

Minimal rules and regulations

Emotions distract for others

Has grandiose sense of self-importance

Requires excessive admiration

Has a sense of entitlement

Is arrogant

Tends to be rated as less effective

A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. 

High Self-Monitors

Receive better performance ratings

Likely to emerge as leaders

Show less commitment to their organizations

Make quicker decisions

Use less information to make decisions

Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations

Are slower to make decisions

Require more information before making decisions

Exist in larger organizations with stable environments

Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job requirements should be beneficial to organizations.

are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly;

feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;

strive to think or do two or more things at once;

cannot cope with leisure time;

are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire.

never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience;

feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments;

play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost;

can relax without guilt.

Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs. 

Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of constraints or obstacles.

Mode of conduct or end state is personally or socially preferable (i.e., what is right & good)

A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity

Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.

Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values.

The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.

Low distance: relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth

High distance: extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth

The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups.

A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.

The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where assertiveness and materialism are also valued.

The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women. 

The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.

High Uncertainty Avoidance:  Society does not like ambiguous situations & tries to avoid them. 

Low Uncertainty Avoidance:  Society does not mind ambiguous situations & embraces them.  

A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.

A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and the here and now. 

Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.

Realistic

Investigative

Social

Conventional

Enterprising

Artistic

Useful for determining person-organization fit

Survey that forces choices/rankings of one’s personal values

Helpful for identifying most important values to look for in an organization (in efforts to create a good fit)

Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’ judgments of applicants.

Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity—for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.

A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.

The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.

The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics

Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.

Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job performance.

A perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state.

Choices made from among alternatives developed from data perceived as relevant.

Describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome.

Model Assumptions

Problem clarity

Known options

Clear preferences

Constant preferences

No time or cost constraints

Maximum payoff

Steps

Define the problem.

Identify the decision criteria.

Allocate weights to the criteria.

Develop the alternatives.

Evaluate the alternatives.

Select the best alternative.

The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.

Proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation.

Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity.

seeking the first alternative that solves problem

Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions.

Using early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments.

Using only the facts that support our decision.

Using information that is most readily at hand.

Recent 

Vivid

“Mixing apples with oranges”

Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting category using only the facts that support our decision.

Highest bidder pays too much

Likelihood of “winner’s curse” increases with the number of people in auction.

In spite of new negative information, commitment actually increases!

Creating meaning out of random events

Looking back, once the outcome has occurred, and believing that you accurately predicted the outcome of an event 

An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.

A high level of uncertainty exists

There is little precedent to draw on

Variables are less scientifically predictable

“Facts” are limited

Facts don’t clearly point the way

Analytical data are of little use

Several plausible alternative solutions exist

Time is limited and pressing for the right decision

Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.

Decision makers make action choices that are favored by the organization.

Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative choices of decision makers.

Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.

Past decisions influence current decisions.

Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.

Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals such as whistleblowers.

Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially.

There are no global ethical standards.

The ethical principles of global organizations that reflect and respect local cultural norms are necessary for high standards and consistent practices.