Term
| What is the average volume of blood for females and males |
|
Definition
5-6L male
4-5L female
8% body weight |
|
|
Term
| What is the temp and ph of blood |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the haematorcrit of males females and babies |
|
Definition
40-50% male
35-45 female
35-36 babies |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 functions of blood |
|
Definition
Transportation of gases, nutrients, hormones and metabolic waste
Regulation of pH and ion composition of interstitial fluids
Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites
Defence against toxins and pathogens
Stabilisation of body temperature |
|
|
Term
| Describe Transportation of gases |
|
Definition
| blood carries o2 from the lungs to the peripheral tissues and co2 from those tissues back to the lungs |
|
|
Term
| Describe Transportation of nutrients |
|
Definition
| distributes nutrients absorbed by the digestive tract or released from storage in adipose tissue/the liver |
|
|
Term
| Describe Transportation of hormones |
|
Definition
| carries from endocrine glands towards their target cells |
|
|
Term
| Describe Transportation of wastes |
|
Definition
| wastes produced by the tissue cells and carries them to the kidneys for excretion |
|
|
Term
| Describe Regulation of pH and ion composition of interstitial fluids |
|
Definition
| Diffusion between intersitial fluid and blood eliminates local deficiences or excess ions such as ca or K. Blood also absorbs and neutralises acids for example lactate hence its alkaline nature |
|
|
Term
| Describe Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites |
|
Definition
| Blood contains enzymes and other substances that respond to breaks in vessel walls by initiating the process of clotting |
|
|
Term
| Describe Defence against toxins and pathogens |
|
Definition
| Blood transports WBC and antibodies to defend the body agaisnt toxins and pathogens |
|
|
Term
| Describe Stabilisation of body temperature |
|
Definition
| by absorbing heat generated by active skeletal muscles and redistributes it to other tissues. |
|
|
Term
| What happens if blood temp is too high? |
|
Definition
| heat will be lost to the skin surface |
|
|
Term
| What happens if blood temp is too low? |
|
Definition
| the warm blood is directed to the brain and other temp sensitive organs |
|
|
Term
| Describe the composition of plasma |
|
Definition
43-63% whole blood
92% water
7% plasma proteins
1% other solutes
Resembles IF
Continuous exchange of water, ions and small solutes between plasma and IF across capillaries
Differences are levels of respiratory gases and concentration of dissolved proteins |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 plasma proteins |
|
Definition
Albumins
Globulins
Fibrinogen
Regulatory proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
major contributor to osmotic pressure of plasma
transports lipids and steroid hormones
unfilterable |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transport ions hormones lipids and immune function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| essential component of clotting system, can be converted into insoluble fibrin |
|
|
Term
| What are the formed elements in a blood sample |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| haemoglobin which bind co2 and o2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neutrophls, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| formed from bone marrow and form blood clots |
|
|
Term
| Describe a centrifuged blood sample |
|
Definition
55% plasma
45 % RBC
then a buffy coat containing WBC and platelets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| red blood cell volume/whole blood volume x 100 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
8micrometres
large surface area to volume ratio so lots of o2 can be carries and faster absorption
very flexible so they can squeeze through capillaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
complex quaternary structure each made up of 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains
contains a single fe atom that oxygen can bind to |
|
|
Term
| How many Hb molecules does a RBC contain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the lifespan of Hb |
|
Definition
| 120 days, after which it is destroyed by the in the liver/spleen by large phagocytic called macrophages |
|
|
Term
| What is the fate of a done Hb |
|
Definition
iron stored in liver and recycled
remaining heme ring broken into bile pigments and protein chain broke into amino acids which are re-utilised |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when rbcs are made in the red bone marrow
must have supplies of aa, iron and vitamins
directly stimulated by EPO |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when blood flow to the kidneys declines
during anemia
when o2 content of air in lungs declines
respiratory surfaces of the lungs are damaged |
|
|
Term
| What are the major effects of EPO |
|
Definition
travels to bone marrow and stimulates stem cells and developing rbcs
stimulates cell division rates in erythroblasts
speeds up maturing rbcs mainly by accelerating Hb synthesis |
|
|
Term
| When will plasma of an individual contain anti-rh antibodies |
|
Definition
| if an individual has been sensitised by a previous exposure to Rh+ RBCs |
|
|
Term
| What is erythroblastosis fetalis? |
|
Definition
| during pregnancy a mothers antibodies may cross the placenta attacking and destroying foetal rbc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when an rh- mother carries an rh+ baby |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
if the second baby is a rh+ baby, maternal anti rh antibodies produced after first delivery may cross placenta and enter foetal bloodstream.
antibodies can destroy foetal rbc and produce anaemia |
|
|
Term
| How can this be prevented |
|
Definition
| administering antibodies to mother in last 3 months of pregnancy and after delivery |
|
|
Term
| Describe the general structure of WBC |
|
Definition
| contain nucleus and organelles but lack Hb. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 categories? |
|
Definition
Granulocytes (stained granules) (PHILS)
Agranulocytes (few stained) (CYTES) |
|
|
Term
| Are there more WBCs or RBCs per volume of blood? |
|
Definition
Every ml contains:
6000-9000 WBCs
4.7-6.1million RBCs |
|
|
Term
| What are 4 characteristics of WBCs |
|
Definition
1. all can migrate out of bloodstream
2. all are capable of Amoeboid movement
3. All are attracted to specific chemical stimuli
4. Neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes are capable of phagocytosis |
|
|
Term
| How do WBCs migrate out of the bloodstream? |
|
Definition
| when they are activated they adhere to the vessel walls and then squeeze between adjacent endothelial cells and entering surrounding tissue |
|
|
Term
| What is Amoeboid movement? |
|
Definition
| Requires ca2+ and ATP and allows WBCs to move through the endothelial lining and into peripheral tissues |
|
|
Term
| Chat to me about neutrophils |
|
Definition
50-70% of WBCs are neutrophils
Chemicall NEUTRAL and difficult to stain with
Sense, segmented nucleus 2-5lobes
12 micrometers
first wbc to arrive at injury site and engulf bacteria |
|
|
Term
| Chat to me about eosinophils |
|
Definition
granules stain dark
2-4% of wbcs
similar size to neutro but bilobed nucleus
attacks objcets coated in antibodies |
|
|
Term
| Chat to me about basophils |
|
Definition
numerous granules dark
8-10micrometers
less than 1% wbcs
release histamine and herapin |
|
|
Term
| Chat to me about monocytes |
|
Definition
spherical 15 micrometers diameter (twice rbc)
large kidney nucleus
release chems that attract neutrophils and monocytes etc |
|
|
Term
| Chat to me about lymphocytes |
|
Definition
slightly larger than rbc
large nucleus and thin cytoplasm
20-30% of wbc |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 classes of lymphocytes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| responsible for cell-mediated immunity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
responsible for humeral immunity produces antibodies
activated b cells differentiate into plasma cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
natural killer cells
carry out immune surveillance |
|
|
Term
| Chat to me about platelets |
|
Definition
4 micrometers
major role in the vascular clotting system
form temporary patch in damaged vessel walls
contains actin and myosin filaments which contract after clot forms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the stopping of bleeding, halts the loss of blood through the walls of damaged vessels. Three phases: vascular, platelet and coagulation |
|
|
Term
| Describe the vascular phase |
|
Definition
| vascular spasm decreases diameter of vessel at sight of injury |
|
|
Term
| describe the platelet phase |
|
Definition
platelets attach to sticky endothelial surfaces, basement membrane and to exposed collagen fibres.
platelet adhesion and platelet aggregation |
|
|
Term
| what is platelet aggregation |
|
Definition
| platelets begin to stick together to form a platelet plug that may close vessel break. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the coagulation phase |
|
Definition
| complex series of events that lead to the conversion of circulating fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin. Network grows which traps blood cells and additional platelets forming a blood clot |
|
|
Term
| When do platelets get activated? |
|
Definition
when they arrive at injury site and release:
ADP-> simtulates platelet aggregation and secretion
Thromboxane A2 and serotonin -> stimulate vascular spasms
Clotting factors
PDGF->peptide that promotes vessel repair
Ca2+ -> required for aggregation and several steps of clotting process |
|
|
Term
| What factors limit the growth of the platelet plug |
|
Definition
Prostacyclin (inhibits platelet aggregation)
Inhibitory compounds
Circulating plasma enzymes |
|
|
Term
| chat to me about clotting factors |
|
Definition
| ca2+ and 12 other proteins required for clotting process. many proteins are proenzymes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when activated, direct essential reactions and produce a chain reaction/cascade |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| once the mesh has formed, the platelets then contract and the whole clot retracts, |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ezymes thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator activate the proezyme plasminogen.
this reduced the enzyme plasmin which begins to digest the fibrin |
|
|
Term
| Name the powerful inhibitors in blood that prevent clots |
|
Definition
antithromboplastin
herapin
antithrombin |
|
|
Term
| What is the lymphatic system |
|
Definition
| includes cells, tissues and organs responsible for defending the body against environmental hazards. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a fluid that resembles plasma but contains a much lower conc of suspended proteins |
|
|
Term
| what do cytotoxic t cells do |
|
Definition
| attack foreign cells or body cells infected by virus |
|
|
Term
| what do helper t cells do |
|
Definition
| stimulate the activation and function of b and t cells |
|
|
Term
| what do supressor t cells do |
|
Definition
| inhibit the activation and function of b and t cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can differentiate into plasma cells |
|
|
Term
| What are some non specific defences |
|
Definition
- physical barrier
- phagocytes engulf pathogens and cell debris
- immunological surveillance NK cells destroy abnormal cells |
|
|
Term
| What are the physical barriers? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. chemotaxis: movement of cells to the foreign material. complement protein enter tissue and are activated by foreign body
2.adherence: cell adheres to foreign body via complement interaction
3.membrane activation: cell undergoes oxidative bust and neutrophil phagocytoses foreign body
4.initiation:neutrophil takes phagosome within cell
5.fusion with granules:breakdown molecule |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 signs of inflammation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
vasodilation increases blood entry in capillaries.
red cells become sticky
increased localised conc of red cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
blood capillaries become leaky
plasma enters tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
local oedema activates pain receptors
kinins act on nerve endings |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increased cellular metabolic activates |
|
|
Term
| what are the 4 stages of inflammation |
|
Definition
1.initial events (redness, swelling, pain)
2.cellular invasion (wbcs invade tissues)
3.tissue remodelling and repair
4.resolution (extrusion, resorption, integration, encapsulation) |
|
|
Term
| What are the initial events of inflammation |
|
Definition
1.dilation of blood capillaries and accumulation of red cells
2. mast cells release histamines and other chemicals
3.histmaine makes capillaries more permeable and speeds up blood flow
4.loss of plasma through capillary walls which allows plasma proteins to enter tissue
5.attraction of phagocytes |
|
|
Term
| What role do neutrophils play in the tissue |
|
Definition
phagocytosis (enter by chemotaxis)
release further inflammatory mediators that signal macrophages |
|
|
Term
| What role do macrophages play in the tissue |
|
Definition
phagocytose any remaining microorganisms and cell debris
release cytokines (Which stimulate fibroblasts) -> scar tissue |
|
|
Term
| what are the early mediators of inflammation and how long do they take to be released? |
|
Definition
Neuropeptides
Histamine
minutes |
|
|
Term
| What do neuropeptides do? |
|
Definition
cause vasodilation and inflammtion.
released from nerve endings in tissues when nerves are damaged and when stimulated by kinins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
causes relaxation of smooth muscle cells (causes plasma to move into the tissue) and vasodilation.
released from mast cells |
|
|
Term
| what are the intermediate mediators of inflammation and how long do they take to be released? |
|
Definition
Products of activated neutrophils (prostaglandins and leukotrienes)
Kinins
Complement protein cleavage products
20mins-40hrs |
|
|
Term
| What are Complement protein cleavage products? |
|
Definition
important in the non-specific host response to microbes and foreign material
circulate in the blood constantly in an inactive form and become activated when in contact with foreign material
activation causes proteins to coat the material to make it more susceptical to phagocytosis |
|
|
Term
| Which is the most important protein and why |
|
Definition
| C3 which fragments into c3a and c3b when in contact with a foreign substance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| c3b sticks to the surface and in combination with factor b catalyses the separation of more c3 into c3a and c3b |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| c3a will cause the tissue to be infiltrated with phagocytoic cells. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the classical pathway for complement activation |
|
Definition
-most rapid and effective
-c1 binds to antibody molecule attached to bacterial cell wall
-bound complement acts as an enzyme cascade
-c3 converted into c3b |
|
|
Term
| Describe the alternative pathway for complement activation |
|
Definition
-slower less effective
-absence of antibody
-involves several complement factors
-c3 converted into c3b |
|
|
Term
| what are the late mediators of inflammation and how long do they take to be released? |
|
Definition
products of activated macrophages (cytokines)
4hours |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
involved in cell to cell communication.
regulate cell activity
produced by many cells, mainly macrophages and T helper (CD4 and cells) |
|
|
Term
| Describe tissue remodelling |
|
Definition
-orchestrated by macrophages which produce cytokines which activate mesenchymal cells and endothelial cells
-new tissue matrix is laid down
-inflammation dies down and macrophages subside |
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure of a B cell |
|
Definition
specific receptors on membrane for specific binding
activated b cells will produce plasma cells and memory b cells
plasma cells synthesis and secrete antibodies |
|
|
Term
| What do t helper cells CD4 do? |
|
Definition
| secrete cytokines to stimulate macrophages |
|
|
Term
| what do t-cytotoxic cd8 cells do? |
|
Definition
| kill cells they recognise (viruses/cancer) |
|
|
Term
| what do t memory cells do |
|
Definition
| clone more lymphocytes to ward off invaders |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| develops after exposure to antigen, body produces antibody |
|
|
Term
| how is natural AI developed? |
|
Definition
| from environmental exposure |
|
|
Term
| how is induced AI developed? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| develops from transfer of antibodies from another source |
|
|
Term
| how is natural PI developed? |
|
Definition
| in a transfer or antibodies from mother to baby |
|
|
Term
| how is induced PI developed? |
|
Definition
| from antibodies being injected |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 properties of immunity |
|
Definition
Specificity
Versatility
Memory
Tolerance |
|
|
Term
| Describe the immune response |
|
Definition
1. antigen triggers immune response activating both b and t cells
2. after phagocytes have engulfed material, antigens will be expressed on cell membrane (APC) which activate T cell
3. Activated T cell attack antigen and stimulate activation of B cells
4. B cells mature into plasma cells and produce antibodies
5. Antibody released into bloodstream, bind and inactivates antigen |
|
|
Term
| What must B cells be activated by? |
|
Definition
| T cells to produce antibodies |
|
|
Term
| What would T cells fail to recognise antigens without? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
macrophages, dendrite cells and B lymphocytes.
They break down antigens and when exposed to T cells cause T cell stimulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proteins in the T cell membrane that respond to antigens |
|
|
Term
| Which markers are present in cytotoxic cells and suppressor cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which markers are present in T helper cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is B cell sensitisation |
|
Definition
when a B cell encounters matching antigens, binding occurs and B cell prepares for activation.
Occurs in lymph nodes nearest to infection/injury site. |
|
|
Term
| What is B cell activation |
|
Definition
| requires a T cell to secrete cytokines that activate B cells which then stimulate B cell division, accelerate plasma cell formation and enhance antibody production |
|
|
Term
| What bond forms between antigen and antibody? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How many types of antibody/immunoglobulin are there? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 main ways antibodies participate in the host defence? |
|
Definition
Neutralisation
Opsonisation
Complement activation |
|
|
Term
| Describe the primary response |
|
Definition
Antibody levels peak 1-2 weeks after exposure
Activated B cells divide immediately
Plasma cells and memory cells produced |
|
|
Term
| Which antibody appears first? |
|
Definition
IgM
less effective but provides immediate defence until IgM levels are high enough |
|
|
Term
| Describe the secondary response |
|
Definition
immediate response from memory b cells
b cells activated at low antigen concentrations and produce more effective antibodies
activated memory b cells differentiate into antibody secreting plasma cells |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the early stages of infection? |
|
Definition
| neutrophils and Nk cells migrate to threatened area to kill bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytokines attract phagocytes to area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Tc cells appear as T cells are activated by APCs
B cells differentiate into plasma cells
increase in circulatory antibodies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ability to produce an immune response after exposure to an antigen |
|
|
Term
| Define cell mediated immunity |
|
Definition
| demonstrated as early as the 3rd month of fetal development |
|
|
Term
| Define active antibody immunity |
|
Definition
follows one month after (B cells)
Foetus can produce IgM antibodies |
|
|
Term
| What is the significance of IgM antibodies |
|
Definition
| IgM antibodies from the maternal bloodstream are the only ones that are able to cross the placenta and include those involved in the foetal-maternal Rhesus incompatibility. |
|
|
Term
| How do babies acquire IgG antibodies post delivery? |
|
Definition
Maternal supply of IgG stops and amount in bloodstream rapidly declines over first 2 months (v vunerable)
Infant will produce their own in response to infection, environmental changes and vaccinations. |
|
|
Term
| Which antibody is acquired via breast milk? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What causes autoimmune disorders |
|
Definition
| when the immune response inappropriately targets normal body cells and tissues |
|
|
Term
| What causes immunodeficiency disorders |
|
Definition
| occurs when the immune system fails to develop normally or the immune response is blocked |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| develops when an inappropriate/excessive response to allergens occur |
|
|
Term
| What events occur in an autoimmune disorder? |
|
Definition
- B cells make antibodies against body cells (autoantibodies)
- Reduction of suppressor T cell activity
- Excessive stimulation of T helper cells
- Tissue damage releasing antigenic fragments
- Haptens bound to compounds that are usually ignored |
|
|
Term
| What is severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) |
|
Definition
individuals fail to develop cell-mediated and antibody mediated immunity
Normal B and T cells absent
No immune response there minor infections = fatal
Inherited by x chromosome |
|
|
Term
| What is the treatment for SCID |
|
Definition
| bone marrow transplant (to give functional lymphocytes) and gene therapy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an immunodeficiency disease that results from a viral infection (HIV) that targets helper T cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Upon infection, suppressor factors released from suppressor T cells inhibit an immune response before the few surviving helper T cels can stimulate the formation of cytotoxic cells to deal with the infected cells. |
|
|
Term
| What are immunosuppressor drugs? |
|
Definition
used after a transplant surgery so body doesn't reject new tissues
they also destroy stem cells and lymphocytes leading to immunological failure |
|
|
Term
| What is immediate hypersensitivity |
|
Definition
rapid and severe response to antigen
sensitisation during initial exposure leads to production of IgE |
|
|
Term
| What occurs on first exposure |
|
Definition
| does not produce symptoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What occurs on subsequent exposure |
|
Definition
| bound IgE stimulates these cells to release histamin, herapin, cytokines, prostoglandins into tissues = inflammation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
when a circulatory allergen affects mast cells throughout the body. Causes rapid changes in capillary permeability which produces swelling and oedema in the dermis and hives on skin
smooth muscles along the respiratory passageway contact |
|
|
Term
| What is anaphylactic shock prevented by |
|
Definition
| administration of antihistamines |
|
|
