• amplitude/crest is perpendicular to the origin 
• most common type of wave like at the ocean 

• "Nu"
• HERTZ
• how many waves go through a point in one second
• frequency is like standing on a road and seeing how many cars pass by.
• ex. the frequency of cars on Rt. 8 is greater than the frequency of cars on McCully Rd.

• "lambda"
• METERS
• distance from trough to trough, or from crest to crest, etc.

• Bottom of the wave

• top of the wave

• distance from the origin to the trough
• distance from the origin to the crest

• came up with the atom

• he says atoms have a charge
• tests this with the cathode ray (beam of light is attracted to a positive charge and repelled by a negative charge)
• becomes the plum pudding model with a big positively charged core and electrons around it

• determines the charge of an electron
• atoms have mass
• his oil drop experiment
• able to measure the charge to mass ratio of the electron

• discovers atoms have a lot of empty space
• gold foil experiment- puts alpha particles through gold foil. Although the vast majority of particles passed right through the foil in approximately 1 in 8000 were deflected; therefore, most of the atom was made up of empty space

• the crest is parallel to the origin
• like shock waves in earthquakes

order from low wavelength to high wavelength:

• Cosmic - Gamma - X Rays - Ultra Violet Rays - Visible Light (vib g yor) - Infra Red - Microwaves - T.V. waves - Radio waves (FM then AM)

• Directly Proportional: Energy and Frequency
• Inversely Proportional: Frequency and Wavelength
• ***constant = amplitude, speed***

• used to treat cancer
• go straight through any part of the body and can change and mutate cells
• they kill the cells, good and bad, and that's why they're used to treat cancer

• negative images
• lower frequency = organs
• higher frequency = bones

Ultra Violet Rays

• like the sun
• cause skin cancer
• x-rays actually cause cancer EASIER because of their higher frequency

• From high frequency to low, goes ROY G BIV backwards, or VIB G YOR 

• picks up heat
• can see thermal temperatures (heat)

• heats up your food by seeing H2O vibrations, heating the H2O up, creating friction, and heating the food
• many other types of microwaves, not just the normal food-heater-upper kind

• self explanatory.
• used to use bunny ears, and you could get different channels by changing the distance between the wires

• picks up stations, changes frequency
• FM = higher frequency. MHz
• AM = lower frequency. KHz
• AM has less clarity; we listen to FM because it has a higher frequency, higher [ ], better clarity 
• FM don't travel as far, so we're closer to them and can therefore hear them really well

• bounce of light
• angle of incidence = angle of reflection

• bending of light

Black Light

• on the border of UV rays/visible light
• glow in the dark things: store the energy from light then slowly release

• energy that was stored is released slowly over a period of time
• glow sticks

• once the light source is gone, energy is gone and the object will not glow anymore

Quantanization of Electron

(how energy comes in)

• as light, heat, electricity

Quantanization of Electron

(how the energy goes through the process)

• The atom is hit with energy, the energy moves to outer rings with the electron. The electron is not stable. If the electron goes back down the rings to fill a ring, energy is released IN THE FORM OF LIGHT!

Quantanization of Electron

(energy differences between rings)

• going from the 1st to the 4th ring is harder and takes more energy than going from the 1st to the 2nd or 3rd ring

Quantanization of Elecrton

(excited/ground state)

• excited state is when the electron is in an unstable outer ring and the rings below it are not filled up
• ground state is when the electron is in a completely filled up ring

• white: all of the colors
• black: absence of color
• red: only red

• white: no pigments
• black: all pigments
• red: all but red pigment
• ex. chlorophyll has all of the colors except for green

Continuous Spectrum 

vs

Line Spectrum

• continuous: multiple wavelengths and frequencies  of light for a specific section 
• line: contains only one frequency and wavelength of a specific section
• *different lights give off different line spectrums* 

λ*ν=c

• wavelength*frequency=constant
• constant is the speed of light, 3.00x10⁸ m/s

E=hν

• energy=Plank's constant*frequency
• energy is measured in joules
• Plank's constant is 6.634x10^-34
• energy and frequency are directly proportionate

E= -R_H / n²

• energy=-R_H constant divided by (the ring electron is in)²
• R_H constant= 2.179x10^-18 Joules 

ΔE=hν

E_I-E_F

• take your energy in the initial ring minus your energy in the final ring, applying the E=-R_H / n² to both rings

• U.V. rays
• from n=7 to n=1

• visible light
• from n=7 to n=2

• Infra Red rays
• from n=7 to n=3

• on the rings
• but since the electron moves in waves, the electron could be closer to the crest or trough

λ=h/mv

• wavelength=Plank's constant / mass x velocity
•      calculates the wavelength of any moving object
•      wavelength = meters
•      velocity = m/s
•      mass = kg

• 2 electrons can be in every orbital if they are spinning in opposite directions

Ψ

• gives us information about the particle at given energy levels

• branch of physics that describes wave properties of subatomic particles

• gives the highest probable place of finding an electron

• place with the highest probability of finding an electron
• different shapes: s, p, d, f
• there are 2 electrons per lobe

• s = 1 lobe
• p = 2 lobes
• d = 4 lobes
• f = 8 lobes

• s = 2 electrons
• p = 6 electrons
• d = 10 electrons
• f = 14 electrons

How would you diagram

[image]

• protons = 54
• neutrons = 131-54= 77
• electrons = 54
• it's in the P section of periodic table, 5th row down so you put in 5 rings to diagram
• do orbital diagram to know how many electrons are in each ring

Quantum Numbers

Principle Quantum Number

• symbol = n
• represents what energy level (ring) the electron is in
• possibilities: n=1,2,3,4...

Quantum Numbers

Angular Quantum Number (Azimuthal)

• symbol = l
• represents what orbital the electrons is in
• possibilities: l= 0(s), 1(p), 2(d), 3(f)

Quantum Number

Magnetic Quantum Number

• symbol = m_L
• represents what orientation the electron is in around the nucleus or what box the electron is in
• possibilities: 0 for s... -1,0,1 for p... -2,-1,0,1,2 for d... -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 for f

Quantum Number

Spin Quantum Number

• symbol = m_s
• represents which direction the electron is spinning
• possibilities: ↑ or ↓

• No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers (only way 2 electrons are in the same orbital is if they have different spins)

• aka the build-up principle
• electrons must fill up the lowest energy positions first
• "follow the yellow brick road"

• lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a sub shell is done by putting electrons into separate orbitals with the same spin before pairing electrons
• basically, you put all of the up spinning electrons in before going back and adding the down spinning electrons

• Paramagnetic= substance is weakly attracted to a magnetic field due to unpaired electrons
• Diamagnetic= substance is not attracted to a magnetic field or is slightly repelled due to having all of its electrons paired up

LOOK OVER PERIODIC TRENDS!!!

remember:

1. #of rings (more rings is bigger)

2. #of protons (more protons is SMALLER)

3. # of electrons (more electrons is bigger)

• Atomic Radius: bigger bottom left, smaller top right
• Ionic Radius: cations and anions= bigger bottom left, smaller top right
• Ionization Energy: lower/smaller in bottom left, higher in top right
• Electron Affinity and Negativity: lower bottom left, higher top right
• Metallic Character: higher bottom left, lower top right
• Reactivity: highest in bottom left and top right