-King of neobabylonia who excavated and rebuilt ruined temples of Babylon 

-considered an "antiquarian"

discovered Troy and is called the "Father of Modern Archaeology"

-used hypothesis testing

-used stratigraphy

-found crude stone tools (lithics) and hand axes

-postulated the existence of very early hominids

-excavated a burial mound

-known as the "Father of American Archaeology"

how things become preserved in the archaeological record

-discarded as garbage/debitage (shell middens)

-buried as a result of catastrophe (Pompeii)

-buried intentionally (grave goods)

-a group of hominids adapted to a tall grass, Savannah. They had to walk bipedal to see over the grass for protection. This "freed" up upper limbs for carrying and tool use.

*bipedalism came before large increase in brain size

2.5mya to 10,000ya

-based on big game hunting and gathering

-longest of 3 periods

-simplest tool complex and assemblages

-small group structures

-use of fire (homo erectus)

10,000ya to 7,000ya

-transition from big game hunting to small game hunting and extensive gathering

7,000ya to 3,000ya

-from the beginnings of agriculture to the use of metal tools

2.5mya to 125,000ya

-Oldowan Tool Complex

-Homo habilis ("handy human")

-Acheulian Tool Complex

-Homo Erectus ("peking or java human")

-associated with homo habilis

-"pebble" tools (choppers, hammers, stones)

-thought to be used for meat processing, wood working, and animal skin processing

-associated with homo erectus, homo neanderthal, and archaic homo sapiens

-biface hand axes, knives, scrappers, cleavers

-tools more complex and numerous

125,000ya to 30,000ya

-evolution of tool types and manufacturing

-Levallois Core Technique

-Mousterian Tool Industry

-Homo Neanderthal

-Homo Sapiens (archaic)

-associated with Homo Neanderthal and archaic Homo Sapiens

-small sharp flakes, spear points, scrapers, sharper hand axes

-also, bone tools

-burial rituals and body adornments

30,000ya to 10,000

-Blade Technology

-decorated tools

-"Venus" figurines

-Cave paintings

-tools mostly associated with homo sapiens

-varied, specialized, and artistically decorated tool tradition

-ex: blade tools, long blades and spear points, harpoons, projectile points

-ivory, bone, and antler tools

-changes in paleoenvironment occurs (large game extinction-75% of mammal groups became extinct)

-start incorporating smaller mammals into diet

-extensive knowledge and gathering of plants, nuts, roots, and berries

-change from living in caves and rock shelters to open air sites

-trade with other groups

-increase in cultural complexity

-new tool complex (microliths)

-made tools that make tools

-as human populations increased and spread, humans became more efficient predators and hunted many species to extinction

*Problems=some extinctions occurred before humans arrived & early hominids too few in # to have killed all the animals

-there was a general shift from a cold, wet climate to a warm, dry climate as glaciers receded

-cold weather adapted animals couldn't adapt well to the environmental change which may have produced desiccation, shrinking habitats, and mass starvation

*Problems=animals survived previous glacial sequences & diverse groups of animals became extinct

-domestication of animals

-increase in cultural technology associated with agriculture and herding (plow, food processing tools)

-storage for food surplus

-developed wheel and animal power

-increase in population and cultural complexity

-the belief that our own patterns of behavior are the best, most natural, beautiful, right, and important

-from birth our outlook is centered on our own culture and behavior patterns

-proposed by Franz Boas

-behaviors are only relevant in the cultural context that they occurred in

*if you only focus on one specific behavior, it may seem weird, but if you look at the group as a whole then it may make more sense

-ex: halloween for foreigners

-proposed by Franz Boas

-each group has their own particular or unique history of development or evolution

the perceived behavior patterns of a group (what people say they do)

ex: supposed to slow down (IDEAL) at yellow light, but most speed up (REAL)

controlling the opinions that others have of us by changing our actions and dress

-ex: if Prof. Mooney showed up to class in a suit and tie he would not be showing how he really acts

-learning cultural behaviors as a second culture (may be forced or free will)

-change that occurs as a result of prolonged contact between two cultures

-ex: semester abroad, Indian schools

-ex: child raised by wolves

behaviors and actions that are common to all cultures

-ex: religion, age grading, athletics/games, division of labor by sex and age, cultural variables

"Arm Chair" Anthropologists

(1850-1920)

-speculated on the evolution of "primitive" people

-judged and ranked cultures (very ethnocentric)

a progression of stages exhibited by an individual over time that includes both a universal biological pattern and a specific cultural pattern

*12 stages!

from 1-8 weeks prenatal

-period of development and differentiation

from 8-39 weeks

-period of rapid somatic growth

from birth to 4 weeks

-period of adjustment to the extrauterine environment, mostly reflexive behavior

from 4 weeks to 24 months

-period of transition from reflexive to purposeful behavior (feeding, locomotion)

from 24 months to 12 years

-period of somatic maturity (neuromuscular coordination, tooth eruption, etc.)

from 7-10 years (females) and 7-12 years (males)

-period of growth deceleration, self feeding, enculturation, and socialization

from 10/12-18 years

-period of transition from childhood to adulthood (pubertal growth spurt, development of secondary sex characteristics, etc)

from 18-45 years

-period of growth cessation and degeneration

from 45 years +

-period from end of child bearing years in females (menopause)

cessation of biological processes

-genes may be passed on to continue cycle

-caused by chronic malnourishment during times of development

-people begin to digest their own bodies

-skin hangs loosely, bones visible

-acute malnutrition (short period of time without food)...ex: caused by hurricanes, drought, fire, etc

*easier to reverse than marasmus

-symptoms: apathy, swelling of the extremities, torso, face

the place inhabited by a particular group within a biome

-humans inhabit over 32 different habitats

the levels through which organisms extract energy from the environment

sun-->plants-->herbivores--> carnivores

-hunters, gathers, horticulturalists

-little specialization

-if surplus, usually goes to ceremonies and special occasions 

-no markets or exports

-peasant agriculturalists

-little specialization

-most surplus goes for taxes to land holders

-have a market exchange system

-mechanized agriculturalists

-highly specialized culture

-surplus feeds other specialists

-market exchange system

exchange of goods without thought of repayment

-usually found in egalitarian cultures (no caste systems/classes)

-ex: birthday gifts

impersonal exchanges in which each party attempts to take advantage of the other

-ex: market transactions, raiding, and warfare

the collection of goods to a central authority which allocates these to members of the society (taxes)

-central authority collects surplus (usually found in stratified societies)

-ex: Kwakiutl potlatch

the buying and selling of goods ruled by the laws of supply and demand

-ex: Pratik female haitian wholesalers

multiple spouses and offspring

-ex: Sisterwives

a group of different clans

-group discussions

a group of different tribes

-100 to 200 people atleast

-hierarchy within group (chief)

a group of chiefdoms

-1,000 to 1,000,000 people or more

-1 central authority

-stratification of society

have many spouses but only 1 at a time

*16% of cultures practice this

nuclear family lives with the husband's family (just brothers)

*related to pastoralism

nuclear family lives with the wife's family

*related to horticulture

nuclear family lives near either family

*related to hunting & gathering

nuclear family lives in new location (seperate from either family)

*related to agriculture

nuclear family lives near husband's uncle

*related to horticulture

trace descent through father's line

*usually associated with pastoralism

trace descent through mother's line

*usually associated with horticulture

trace descent through both mother's and father's line

*associated with hunting & gathering or agriculture

discovery of a new tool or principle that becomes universally shared 

-ex: cars, trains, wheels, fire, etc.

a passive attempt to resist culture change by renewing (or revitalizing) old culture patterns and traditions

-ex: Ghandi, "mother earthers"

an active attempt to resist culture change by eliminating all foreign culture 

-ex: Ghost dance ritual, Boxer rebellion

attempt to change culture by looking for the transformation of the world by a supernatural power

-ex: Hitler, Apocalypse

an active attempt to incorporate new cultural behaviors, many times taken out of context

-ex: superstitious behavior-baseball player wears his "lucky" underwear each game during a winning streak

-proposed by Morgan and Tyler

-if given enough time, all cultures will pass through the same evolutionary stages (to become European)

*very ethnocentric

*3 stages:

1. Savagery

2. Barbarian

3. Civilization

lowest and most primitive stage of the unilineal theory

-ex: hunters & gathers/ egalitarians

middle stage of unilineal theory 

-Chiefdom level societies (medium amount of people)

-ex: horticulturalists (Indians, Hawaiin islanders, Yekuana)

most evolved stage of unilineal theory

-state level societies

-proposed by Julian Steward

-based on the concept of Historical Particularism and local environmental factors

-each culture evolves along different lines of descent depending upon acculturation and differences in local environmental factors and energy utilization