1. Chemical energy in the form of ATP

2. Organic building blocks or macromolecules

3. Essential nutrients

1. 8 essential amino acids

2. essential fatty acids

3. vitamins 

4. minerals

1. Physical reduction

2. Enzymatic hydrolysis- breakdown of macromolecules

1. Foraging( food acquistion)

2. ingestion

3. Digestion(Physical and chemical breakdown)

4.absorbtion

5. elimination

1. Gastrovascular cavity

2. Complete digestive tract

What are the accesory digestive organs?

(4 organs)

1. Salivary Glands

2. Gall Bladder

3. Liver

4. Pancrease

1. pointed incisors

2. pointed canines

3. molar and premolars

1.chiseled incisors

2. flat molar and premolar

3. canines usually lost

1. chiseled incisors

2. pointed canines

3. grinding premolars

4.crushing molars

1.To secrete mucous via mucous cells to protect lining of the stomach

2.produce inactive enzyme pepsinogen via chief cells

3.produce HCl to convert pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin via parietal cells

1. bacteria are killed

2. proteins denatured

3. pepsinogen to pepsin

4. proteins to small polypeptides

1. Link exchange surfaces with cells

2. Increase the rate of difussion to make it faster

It functions in digestion and nutrient/gas exchange.

The body form allows all cells to be in close contact with the environment so their is no need for a circulatory system because nutrients/gases can be absorbed across the membrane.

1. circulatory fluid

2. vessels

3. a heart

1. circulatory fluid called hemolymph bathes organs

Where is the circulatory fluid confined to in a closed circulatory system?

What is it distinct from?

To vessels

Distinct from interstitial fluid

blood to capillary walls to interstitial fluid through the plasma membrane and into the intracellular fluid

1. less costly energetically

2. can have more than 1 function

1. more efficient than open

2. can regulate distribution of blood

What are the functions of arteries?

What do they branch into?

Carry blood away from the heart

Branch into arterioles

What is function the of capillaries?

What do capillaries branch into?

to facilitate diffusion

branch into Venous capillaries

What do venous capillaries branch into?

What do they branch into?

vennules

Vennules branch into veins

What is the function of Atria?

Ventricles?

Atria-recieves venous blood

Ventricles- pump blood away from the heart

1. Hava a 3 chambered heart 2 atria and 1 ventricle

2. Ventricle has a ridge that deverts most oxygen poor blood to the pulmonary curcuit and most oxygen rich blood to the systemic cuircuit however there is still some mixing between the blood.

1. 4 chambered heart due to convergent evolution

2. 2 atria and 1 ventricles

3. right side recieves and pumps oxygen poor blood to the pulmonary circuit

4. Left side recieves and pumps Oxygen rich blood to the systemic circuit

5. circulatory system is endothermic

1. Composed of cardiac muscle

2. ventricles are thicker walled than atria

3. Goes through a cardiac cycle of contraction(systol) and filling(diastol)

1.atria and ventricle are filling in diastol

2.Atria contract in systol but ventricles relax

3. ventricles contract in systol and atria relax in diastol

1.Partial pressure of a respiratory gas which is the concentration of the gas in the habitat the organism lives

2. Net diffusion of O₂ and CO₂ from areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure, across permeable gas exchange surfaces

1. less dense and viscuos than water

2. easier to move across respiratory surfaces

3. contains more O₂ per unit then water

1. Amount of O₂ dissolved is always less than the amount of O₂ in the air

2.high salinity and temperature decrease the solubility of O₂

3. organisms who use this medium use far less energy for gas exchange than air breathing organisms.

maintains a partial pressure gradient favorable for gas exchange

this is accomplished by either moving the gills through water or moving water over the gills

water flows through lamellae, from front side of filament to back

blood flows in opposite direction

1. water flowing in has a high concentration of O₂, O₂ diffuses into the blood gradually lowering the O₂ concentration

2.blood coming into the capilaries has a low O₂ content, it gains O₂ gradually increasing its O₂ concentration

3. The partial pressure gradient from front to back favors diffusion of O₂ from water into capillaries

1.air dry's out the fill lamellae and filaments collapse and stick together, compromising surface area

2.fish can't move air

1. Trachea branch into tracheoles which are highly branched

2. trachea may branch into air sacs in areas of the body that require more O₂

through the use of skeletal muscle that expand their tracheal tubes like bellows

Flying insects use flight muscles to pump air into their body

1. localized internal chambers

2. subdivided into numerous pockets

3. not in direct contact with other parts of body but is with the circulatory system

branch into alveoli

O₂ in inspired gas goes into solution in the moist inner lining of the alveoli, then into epithelial cells and capillaries that lead to pulmonary veins that return oxygen rich blood to the heart.

CO₂ diffuses the opposite direction into the alveoli which have a large surface area

1. muscles in the mouth floor are lowered, sucking air into the oral cavity through the nostrils

2. with mouth and valvular notrils closed, floor of oral cavity is raised forcefully pushing air through opened glottis and into lungs

3. exhalation is by elastic recoil of lungs and compression of body wall muscles

Inhalation

1. Rib muscles contract, raising body wall of thoracic cavity:In amniotes with a diaphram it moves down

2. volume of thoracic cavity expands, lowering pressure inside the cavity relative to the pressure of the atmosphere: 

3.Air rushes in from a high pressure to a low pressure

Exhalation

1. rib muscles relax

2. diaphram relaxes, and moves upward

3. volume of thoracic cavity decreases and air rushes out

What is the pattern of lung ventalation in birds?

How is this accomplished?

they have a 1-way ventalation system

1.two boli of air are present in the system at any one time

2. inhalation brings air into air sacs posterior to the lungs

3. Exhalation pushes air from the posterior air sacs into the lung where gas exchange occurs in tubular parabronchi

4. during the next inhalation the air bolus in the lungs enters the anterior air sacs

5. the second exhalation sends this bolus out of the body

1. haploid gametes form a zygote

2. eggs is large and nonmotile

3. sperm are much smaller and motile

What is characteristic of asexual reproduction?

What are the mechanisms of asexual reproduction?

1. new individuals are produced, usually by mitosis, without fusion of egg and sperm

2. can be produced by budding- new individuals from outgrowths of existing individuals

3. can be produced by fragmentation and regeneration

4. Can be produced by parthenogenesis- eggs develop without being fertilized

in Daphinia a crustacean females produce two different type of eggs in response to condition in the habitat.

they produce diploid eggs that require no fertilization under favorable condition which produce nothing but femal clones

 In Komodo Dragons and in several fishes, amphibians, and reptiles that have through natural doubling of chromosomes after meosis.

All offspring will be diploid females

If asexually and sexulally reproducing females produce the same amount of offspring, What will all offspring be?

Which method produces more offspring?

All offspring of asexual reproduction will be females but only half of the offspring of sexual reproduction will be females.

Asexual type generally produce more offspring

1.Formation of unique combinations of parental genes during mitotic recombination and fertilization

2. can produce individuals with varied phenotypes which can effect survival in the environment

3. shuffling of genes may promote elimination of harmful sets of genes

1. usually cyclic alternating between peaks in availability in food or other resources essential for growth of offspring

2. usually controlled by hormones

When do offspring emerge in temperate latitudes?

Tropical?

temperate: spring

Tropical: influenced by wet and dry seasons

1. Photoperiod

2. seasonal temperature

3. seasonal precipitation

4. lunar cycle

What is hermaphroditism?

What is simultaneous hermaphroditism?

Hermaphroditism- Individuals that have both male and femal structures naturally during some time in their life

Simultaneous hermaphroditism- Individuals are male and female at the same time

any individual is an acceptable mate

Useful when finding mates is extremely difficult such as in sessile, burrowing, and endoparasitic animals.

sequential hermaphroditism- sex is reversable

1. Individuals are one sex then transform into another

2. common in fish

What are the characteristics of external fertilization?

4 characters.

1. restricted to aquatic animals

2. water prevents dessication of egg and allows sperm to swim to egg

3. requires synchronized release of egg and sperm

4.Synchronization can be mediated by courtship behaviors such as vocalization

1. males use intromittent organ(organ to deposit sperm inside female)

2. this type of fertilization ensures sperm delivery

3. needed in dry habitats

4. needed in organisms with amniote eggs

5. needed in viviparous organisms

6. involves cooperative behavior between members of the two sexes

7. females may have specialized receptacles for sperm storage

1.have shell and embryonic membranes.

2.shell is calcified or parchment like external covering is present to prevent water loss and damage

3. Have extraembryonic membranes

1. amnion- closest to embryo; sac around embryo that secretes amniotic fluid

2. Yolk sac- full of nutrient rich yolk to feed the embryo; is an outgrowth of the embryos digestive tract

3.allantois- sac that grows outward from embryonic digestive tube that serves as storage for nitrogenous wastes

4.Chorion- serves in gas exchange

5. albumen- white of egg that is not a membrane but a layer of protein that provides nutrients and protection

1. retains developing embryo inside female reproductive tract.

2. embryo recieves nutrients via connection with maternal system

3. greatly enhances chance of offspring survival

1.testes that produce sperm

2. vas defrens- transport sperm form testes

3. seminal vesicle- store sperm

4. ejaculatory duct- sperm ejaculated along with fluid

5. penis

1. ovaries- produce eggs

2. oviducts- transmit eggs from ovary

3. spermatheca- sac where sperm can be stored

4. vagina- recieves egg, receptacle for penis

5. accesory glands that secrete protective substances for egg

What is the cloaca?

What is the cloacal aperture?

 common chamber that recieves ducts and products from digestive, reproductive, and excretory systems

Opening to the outside

(not common in most mammals)

females have seperate openings for excretory and reproductive systems

Males have just one opening

Why is thermoregulation important?

What are the temperature requirements?

it is critical to survival because temperature can influence rates of enzyme-mediated processes and fluidity and rigidity of plasma membranes

Temperature requirements are species specific

All birds, mammals, some fish, and some insects

can keep body substantially warmer than surroundings

all amphibians, most reptiles, many fish, and most invertebrates

Ectotherms generally consume less food then endotherms

Ectotherms tolerate larger fluctuations in temperature

integumentary

to reduce loss of heat by convection and to allow retention of metabolically generated heat

integumentary

Layers of fat in hypodermis reduce transfer of heat to body surface

integumentary

To reduce heat via evaporation of water from a moist surface

integumentary

Loss of heat through evaporation from moist oral surfaces

Integumentary

Loss of heat through evaporation from moist oral surfaces

Integumentary

loss of heat through evaporative loss from the throat area through the fluttering of pouches richly supplied with blood vessels

Integumentary

Loss of heat through the production of a watery substance on the integument by coiled integumentary glands

Circulatory adaptation

Works through the relaxation and contraction of muscles in superficial blood vessels near body surfaces, increasing of decreasing their diameter

Vasodialation- Increases blood flow to body surface and increases transfer of heat to the environment

Vasoconstriction- reduces blood flow to the surface reducing heat loss

Circulatory adaptation

Heat in the arterial vessels emerging from the body core is transferred to the veins returning to the body core instead of being lost to the environment

Arterial blood gets cooler and cooler but veinous blood gets warmer and warmer

behavioral adaptation

 the movement between warm basking sites and cooler shaded areas

Behavioral adaptation

To trap air clost to the integument

Behavioral Adaptation

The action of aggregating together to share heat and reduce heat loss by convection