Term
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Definition
* Genetically controlled changes in physiology, anatomy, and behavior that occurs to a species lineage overtime.
* Speciation is the development of two or more genetically different species from a common ancestor |
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Term
| Phenotypic variations vs. Genotypic variations |
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Definition
* Physiological variance - anatomical, behavioral differences
* Genotypic variance - genetic differences |
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Term
| Allopatric Speciation, Sympatric Speciation, & Phyletic Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibria |
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Definition
Equilibria
* Allopatric speciation: physical separation and formation of new species by geographic isolation
* Sympatric speciation: formation of new species within same region... How? They have differences in life cycle timing can lead to different mating habits.
* Phyletic gradualism: theory of evolution and natural selection
* Punctuated equilibria: when a species persists for a long period (stasis) with little changes occuring. Speciation occurs when environmenal conditions drastically alters. |
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Term
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Definition
| General patterns to increasing size (evolution increasing towards physiological/morphological complexity? Gould- no prefered direction) |
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Term
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Definition
* The population that founded very small # of individuals generally with less genertic variability than main population.
* Leads to rapid allopatric speciation |
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Term
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Definition
| * Dereased genetic diversity that results form a decreased population size |
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Term
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Definition
| Large populations become genetically separated into (large) isolated populations |
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Term
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Definition
* Development of many species from a single species adapted to many nickes.. got there by chance
* Helped Darwin with the Honey Creeper beak birds |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
* Development of similar morphological or physiological traits in unrelated species living in geographically separated regions
* e.g. placenta and marsupial animals
* e.g. succulency in plants
* looks same, but not genetically similar |
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Term
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Definition
* Geographically isolated populations derived from the same ancestor evolved morphologically and physiologically similar to descendents species.
* Species splits and fill their niches and function differently. e.g. Lizards |
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Term
| Local Extinction vs. Global Extinction |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
* when extinction of a species has profound impact on entire ecosystem e.g. California Candor.
* Umbrella species which are so integrate within the trophic levels that it effects the success or extinction of other organisms below it. |
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Term
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Definition
* Species becomes extinct because they evolved into another species due to environmental changes
* When they turn is impossible to distinguish. |
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Term
| Background (or Normal) Extinction Rates versus Catastrophic (or Mass) Extinctions |
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Definition
* Background/Normal extinction rates: natural event that isn't cause by humans that goes on continually thru geoglogical time.
* Catastrophic/Mass extinctin rates: sudden events that wipe out - assumed to be around average 26 mill. years |
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Term
| Controls on the Likelihood of Extinction |
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Definition
* Higher complexity- more likely
* less likely to survive if conditions change
* e.g. mammal species (3 mill. yrs) vs. Plankton and mollusks (10 mill. yrs)
* Larger animals- more likely
* need more resources for energy
* Predator at top of food chain- more likely (trophic cascades)
* Specialist species with narrow niches- more likely
* less likely to survive environmental changes
* Small population sizes
* local change can wipe out the population
* Slow generation rates
* hard to recover after catastrophic events e.g Panda
* Low dispersal capacity
* ability to shift location after environmental change. |
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Term
| Endemic vs Cosmopolitan Species |
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Definition
* Endemic- only in certain regions
* Cosmopolitan- over many different regions |
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Term
| Pielou’s Combined Regions (Neartic, Palaearctic, Neo-Tropical, Ethiopian (African), Oriental, Australian,) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
* Regions: continental level
* Provinces: sub-divided regions
* Boundaries between regions can be problematic: Wallace Line... Wallace’s line – biogeographic lines, Transition zones between regions, unique because it is more definite as a marker. It’s located between Australia and between south of the islands. Sea level has decreased during island and a land bridge appeared but still a barrier between Australia and Southern Asia. Species in the oriental region and Australia region are still sharply different because there was still a deep channel and could not exchange |
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Term
| Factors behind Biogeographical Regions |
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Definition
* Present+Past location of barriers
* Tectonic plate history
* Evolutionary history of plants & animals |
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Term
| Why is there similarity between the Nearctic and Paleartic Regions? |
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Definition
* similar latitude position = similar range of climates
* similar cooler periods created Claciation
* similar close connection of NOrth America and Eurasia (European and North American Plates linked; Europea separates and collides with Asia)
* Europe and N. American Plates were linked ,t hen Europe separates and collides with Asia
* Similarities between regions, specific families between regions, plate tectonic history |
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Term
| The Isthmus of Panama and the Great American Exchange |
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Definition
* Between 16-3 million years ago, oceans separated North and South America (chain of Islands)
* Served as barries (filters)
* South American species evolved among with Eurasia species (placentals)
* 2.4 mill years ago, plate collision formed Isthmus of Panama- a subduction and volcanic area with fertile soils.
* Initially land brudge was savanna actedlike a corridor and exchanged of species occured. |
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Term
| Be able to talk about the links between plate tectonics, the timing of the appearance of Angiosperms and Mammals & the present day similarities/dissimilarities between different biogeographical regions. |
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Definition
* 250 mill. yrs. ago Pangeae broke up into Gondwandaland and Luasia. Angiosperms sppeared and started dispersing during the late Jurrasic and Early Cretaceous. There are angiosperm similarities between South American, Africa, and Australia (tropics) vs. North America and Eurasia.
* Evolution and dispersal of mammals during the Later Cretaceous and Early Tertiary (adaptive radiation)
* Marsupials evolved and dispersed first in North America, and placentals came alter in Eurasia.
* North America, Eurasia, Africa: marsupials migrated southward to South America, Antarctica, Australia, Eastward to Europe (but NOT Africa)
* A sea separated them from Asia, Africa and India.
* nickes open because dinos die out and were successful in migration
* Asia, Europe and North America fused, so placentals spread to Europe, North America, and (later) to South AMerican and out competed with marsupials and they were wiped out.
* Africa and India collided with Eurasia and Placentals then migrated over there (competition) but never make it to Australia because it breaks off from South American before Placentals arrived. |
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Term
| Humans as a Force in Evolution |
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Definition
* Geographic expansion of modern humans
* Change habitat (ability)
* Act as a predator |
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Term
| Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
* Process by which plants and animal species become dependent on humans for survival while in turn providing humans companionship.
* is the gradual and unplanned process:
* hunting -> selective hunt-> herding -> selective breeding -> genetic modification?
* gathering -> selective gathering -> tending -> selective breeding -> genertic engineering? |
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Term
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Definition
* Cultivation of plants+animals for human use
* Remove certain species to focus nutrients light, water, on one + more species
* Origins and spread of agriculture and domestication |
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Term
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Definition
* grain – protein;
* 1) provides carbohydrates (grains) and protein (legumes)
* 2) maintains soil fertility
* have nitrogen fixers to regenerate soil |
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Term
| Agro-Ecosystems versus Natural Ecosystems |
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Definition
* Farming keeps in early stages of succession (E.x. plowing, burning)
* Reduces biodiversity: monoculture
* Simiplified morphology
* Pesticides + fertilizer application
* genetic modification in USA 3/4 of soybeans, 1/3 of corn are genertically moded.
* increase soil erosion
* natural replacement rate of top soil is 1 mm every 10-40 yrs. |
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Term
| Trophic Levels and Eating Lower on the Food Chain |
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Definition
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Term
| Theories on why Hunting and Gathering People turned to Agriculture |
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Definition
* In a resource rich environment hunt/gathering produces more with less energy
* in a ariculture environment it takes more energy to produce something
* Theories:
* Environmental change hypothesis (not popular theory)
* 12, 000 years ago, onset of cooler/dry conditions
* plant and animal resrouces decline -> stress -> shift to greater food security
* Problems: 1) domestication occurs at different times and diff. parts of the world. 2) domestication + shift to agriculture was not instantaneous
* Population increase hypothesis (more used theory)
* agriculture provides advantages in areas of rapid pop. increases
* cultivated landscapes pricdes more energy per unit of land. (more efficient with space than energy)
* hunt/gathering = requires space
* agriculture +herding permits building of reserves |
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Term
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Definition
| * Over-kill hypothesis... N. Am Pleistocene mega-fauna extinction |
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Term
| North American Pleistocene Mega-Fauna Extinction |
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Definition
* mammoth, Mastodon, horses, camels, sabertooth cat dissapeared 10,000- 40,000 yrs ago. estimated
* estimated 79 large animal species
* Climate Change Hypothesis - end of glacia max at beginning of Holocene
* These species and genera survied other warming periods.
* probably partially responsible for the stress but not extinctions..
* Blitzkrieg theory |
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Term
| Blitzkrieg Theory of Pleistocene Overkill |
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Definition
* humans -> alaska 15,000 years ago and spread southward on land bridge where Bering Sea strait was.
* local fauna not adapted to human threat
* "kill front" of clovis people
* Also Australian late pleistocene extinctions humans arrived 60,000 to 53,000 years ago. hunting/fire changes |
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Term
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Definition
* majority of species have smaller range sizes
* fewer generalists than specialists- because easier to research a tight niche
* more selected for in evolution
* species with large range tend to be common on loval level
* small range tend to have low densities on local level |
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Term
| Patterns in Range Size and Shape |
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Definition
* birds tend to have largest ranges
* predators larger ranges than herbivores
* larger body for species have larger ranges
* ranges for species at higher latitudes and elevation tend to be larger |
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Term
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Definition
| * the White Snow Shoe rabbit vs. the long Hare rabbit shows that show size/shape ratio |
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Term
| Any Patterns in Range Size and Shape? |
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Definition
| * tend to be elliptical or rectangular, less circular or square because of barriers, coasts, mountains, latitudinal controls and solar radiation |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Disjunct biogeographical distributions: |
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Definition
* Dispersal - disjunction= jump dispersal like coconut palms.
* Climatic - climate limit range like cooling and drying curing ice ages (magnolia genus)
* Geological Disjunctions - plate tectonic could be mountains |
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Term
| Biogeographic Relicts (Evolutionary and Climatic) |
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Definition
* Species that once had large geographic ranges that now become narrow endemics
* Evolutionary- survivors of formerly more widespread and diverse evolutionary lineage (Ginkgo tree, mandy Cycad species, tulip trees, Magnolia trees)
* Climatic - glacial relics caused by warming at the end of the Ice Age Cool fog ring the summer maintains these California Coastal relics |
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Term
| Species Richness – equilibrium, biological and historical factors, |
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Definition
* Number of species in a given geographic area (a.k.a biodiversity)
* Doesn't tell us species evenness or rarity
* Species-Area Curve: small areas have small amounts of species richness ( L -> R increase with area)
* 1.7 million species known. Insects over 50% diversity |
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Term
| Latitudinal and Altitudinal Diversity Patterns |
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Definition
* Species diversity tends to decrease at higher altitudes (selected terrestrial and marine organisms).
* Tropical forests contain 45% of all plant & animal species, 95% insect species
* Exceptions: the Peninsula Effect (these areas are less connected to mainland), Deserts, Islands (tend to ahve lower amount of species with more isolation from the mainland), Certain types of species (e.g. whales better in higher latitudes)
* Species diversity tends to decrease with altitude (mammals and vascular plants) |
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Term
| Why do we see these Latitudinal Diversity Patterns? |
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Definition
* Two competing theories
* 1) Historical Theory
* Modern distribution reflect impacts of past events
* Time-stability Hypothesis
* Glacial Disruptions: catastrophic events in the Northern landscapes carved by ice, reducing biodiversity - species didn't have chance to recover.
* But, habitat fragmentation in Tropical Areas during glaciations (might disprove the historical hypothesis). This disturbance wasn't extreme enough and just separated patches of forests, that might increase biodiversity through allopatric speciation.
* 2) Equilibrium Theories of Latitudinal Diversity
* Modern Distribution reflects impacts of current physical and environmental controls.
* Habitat diversity correlate with biological diversity? Topography, vegetation structure, mountains in high/low latitudes.
* But, other biomes have their own layers - Foliage Height Diversity
* Large land area in Tropics? But what about large boreal forests in mid?
* Environmental stability hypothesis? Stability environment in tropics allows fine adaptations and niche-filling. But wouldn't species evolve to less tables environemnt just as well?
* Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis? Just enough disturbances to create space for speciation, but not enough to threaten extinction. But tropical areas have just as much disturbance as other areas.
* Competition? Leads to specialized niches and more species. But hwy is this unique to low latitudes?
* Predation? High number of predators and parasites keep populations low. But indeterminate. Predators can also limit diversity too...
* Primary productivity! Primary products high in low latitudes: greater amount of sunlight and water in the low latitudes -> greater productivity -> support more species at the higher trophic levels (the big diff between high/low latitudes).
* Combo of the two... (Probably a combination of the Historical disturbance and current primary productivity)
* History plays a role - Greater Disturbance at higher altitudes due to climate
* Primary Productivity - the most probable of the equilibrium theories |
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Term
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Definition
| * More physical traits in common = more closely related, grouping to find similarities |
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Term
| Phylogenetic Biogeography |
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Definition
| * Using mtDNA to determine relatedness and time of speciation |
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Term
| Vicariance Biogeography Model |
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Definition
| Combine ideas of Claudistic with a knowledge of geography (Climate Change, plate tectonic history, etc...) Assume that speciations caused by separation (allopatric speciation). |
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Term
| Theory of Island Biogeography |
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Definition
* Observation: Species Richness positively correlated with Island size.
* Observation: Proximity of island to mainland positively correlated with species richness.
* The equilibrium theory of island biogeography
* By Robert MacArthur, Edward O. Wilson
* Species richness will reach an equilibrium (graph).
* governed by rates of extinction and immigration - new species come in to fill the void.
* species composition may change radically (species turnover)
* size of island, govern rates of extinction: greater/key resources in bigger area, and buffered by catastrophic events
* proximity to mainland governs immigration
* What controls immigration and extinction rates?
* Size of island controls rate of extinction... why? how?
* large islands have less extinctions
* small islands have more extinctions
* Distance of island from mainland controls rate of immigration why? how?
* far islands to mainland have less extinctions
* near islands to mainland have more extinctions
* What if we change immigration of extinction rates?
* species richness (S): large/near > large/far ~ small/near > small/far
* graph: equilibrium relationship
* Turnover (T): small/near > large/near ~ small/far > large/far
* Krakatau Islands: Formed in 1883 by Volcanic Eruption. By 1938 tropical forest established - good to test island biogeography
* bird census data showed an increase in bird species and a leveling off by 1921.
* Other tests of the theory...
* Jared Diamond and the California Channel Islands - from 1919 - 1968
* number of bird specie did not change, but species composition had changed dramatically.
* smaller islands had a higher turnover rate: 17% turnover rate for santa cruz island (largest), santa barbara had 62%
* this data supports the idea of island biogeography
* Humans have played a role in changing species composition |
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Term
| New Additions to the Theory of Island Biogeography |
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Definition
* Small Island Effect
* Rescue Effect
* Target Area Effect |
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Term
| Biological Factors play a role in species richness |
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Definition
* Dispersal capability of organisms e.g. flying vs. non-flying animal
* e.g. new findings about karukau
* seed-dispersal plants leveled off in 1921
* wind-dispersal plants continues to increase slowly
* equilibrium may take over 1000 years
* Facilitation process may play a role
* e.g. certain animals may need certain fruit-bearing plants
* Human disturbances
* e.g. Jared Diamond and Channel Islands - many introduced species spear (European sparrow, etc,), many native species threatened (e.g. Bald Eagle) turnover was high (due to human influences: introduced species, habitat change) species richness was the same. |
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Term
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Definition
| Little difference in species richness amongst very small islands - extinction is very high. |
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Term
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Definition
*
* Close Islands -> low turnover rate. (wouldn't we expect a high rate?)
* Middle distance Island -> High turnover rate b/c is speces go extinct ont he island, the same species on the mainland can come and rescue through colonization.
* Far Island -> Low turnover rate. ... Why? it has less immigration so low turnover rate. |
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Term
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Definition
| Large islands provide a bigger target for dispersing organisms and will have higher rates of immigration than expected (Size can also affect migration rates). |
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Term
| Biological Factors play a role in species richness |
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Definition
* Dispersal capability of organisms e.g. flying vs. non-flying animal
* e.g. new findings about karukau
* seed-dispersal plants leveled off in 1921
* wind-dispersal plants continues to increase slowly
* equilibrium may take over 1000 years
* Facilitation process may play a role
* e.g. certain animals may need certain fruit-bearing plants
* Human disturbances
* e.g. Jared Diamond and Channel Islands - many introduced species spear (European sparrow, etc,), many native species threatened (e.g. Bald Eagle) turnover was high (due to human influences: introduced species, habitat change) species richness was the same. |
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Term
| Historical Factors can play a role in species richness |
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Definition
– It isn't just immigration and extinction rates that, perhaps there has been climate change and plate tectonics (history) that affects species richness
* Geological History
* e.g. land bridge islands vs. oceanic island
* Evolutionary History
* rate of speciation on Island (Large vs. Small)
* adaptive radiation can play a role
* continental vs. insular taxa and extinction rates |
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Term
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Definition
| * Primary productivity is the amount biomass produced by a region, generally a region with higher primary productivity will have greater biodiversity. “hot spots” on a global scale, biodiversity is in tropics “hot spots” tend to be in tropical areas too. USA, places of high gradients of altitudes, Appalachians, California etc. |
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Term
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Definition
· A community at threat
· The loss of a species' habitat; often from human impact, e.g. Panda, Red Wolf
· Every species has a range which it is found, the process of extinction/endangerment usually involves habitat destruction, climate change, that range of species will collapse to small percentage of what it once was. Population is lower, vulnerable to catastrophic event happening, disease. a sign of a species in trouble and a further threat. |
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Term
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Definition
| - on the way to being endangered |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| The Values of Biodiversity, Why Conserve Biodiversity? |
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Definition
I. Direct Utilitarian Values
1. Food: e.g. conservation of the wild grain genetic pool to help prevent disease from wiping out one species through monoculture (the planting of only one crop over a large area); new crops are waiting to be found in nature. Used for crossbreeding.
2. Medicines and Other Chemical Compounds: Aspirin (from bark of willow tree), Taxol, an anti-cancer treatment come from the Canadian Yew Tree.
3. Many indigenous peoples rely on local biodiversity for food, medicine; wildlife is often part of native culture as well e.g. Buffalo in Great Plains, Tule Reed for California Miwoks
4. Medical Research: scientists often conduct fieldwork in attempt to find new compounds that can be patented for medicine, the pharmaceutical industry
5. Ecological Service Values: the contribution of species to ecological health
· e.g. bees as pollinators of crops (apple trees)
6. Aesthetic Values: biodiversity enhances our lives through beauty
7. Ecotourism: a growing source of income for many developing countries e.g. Costa Rica
8. Cultural Values: species often serve spiritual or religious functions for indigenous peoples
· e.g. buffalo in Great Plains
II. Ethical Values (Bio-Centric)
1. Other species have the moral right to exist independent of our need for them
2. We are global stewards |
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Term
| Does our Conservation Policy Match with the desire to conserve Biodiversity? |
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Definition
| Public policy often follows the guideline of aesthetics landscapes as opposed to biodiverse landscapes; therefore dramatic landscapes in the Western U.S. are preserved while sites in the East and South are often more biologically diverse. |
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Term
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Definition
| * First major national park created on the basis of conserving biodiversity, a shift from the partly utilitarian/aesthetic philosophy behind preserving Yosemite and Yellowstone. |
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Term
| Species vs. Habitat-Based (Biodiversity) Conservation |
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Definition
| Conservation based on the protection of umbrella species, species which keep an entire ecosystem intact; Zackey used the example of the Northern Spotted Owl which was protected from logging in the Pacific Northwest under the Endangered Species Act signed by Nixon. |
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Term
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Definition
* Species-Based Conservation has two types:
* "In situ": preserving within the species' home habitat
* "Ex situ": preserving animals outside of species' habit eg. zoos & laboratories |
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Term
| Single Large or Several Small Debate (SLOSS) |
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Definition
* Debate is single or large reserve best?
* Arguments for several small over single large
* Habitat Diversity may be necessary
* Species/Area relationship is non-linear
* Threat of disturbance in one area is risky. |
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Term
| Design the layout for a Nature Reserve focused on preserving Biodiversity |
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Definition
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