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Translational research for practice and populations
Evidence based practice for nurses: appraisal and application of research (key terms)
274
Nursing
Graduate
09/09/2013

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Cards

Term
hierarchy of evidence
Definition
1: systematic review or meta-analysis
2: RCT
3: control trial without randomization
4: case-control and cohort studies
5: review of qualitative studies
6: single qualitative study
8: opinion of authorities
Term
Steps of EBP
Definition
0: cultivate spirit of inquiry
1: PICOT question
2: search for evidence
3: critically appraise evidence for validity, reliability and applicability
4: integrate evidence with patient preferences and values
5: evaluate outcomes of practice decision
6: disseminate outcomes
Term
PICOT
Definition
Patient population
Intervention or issue of interest
Comparison intervention or group
Outcome
Time frame
Term
Accessible population
Definition
The group of elements to which the researcher has reasonable access
Term
Active rejection
Definition
Purposefully deciding not to adopt an innovation
Term
AGREE II
Definition
Appraisal of Guidelines Research and Evaluation; internationally developed instrument to evaluate clinical practice guidelines
Term
Alpha level
Definition
Probability of making a Type I error; typically designated as 0.05 or 0.01 at the end of the tail in a distribution. When 0.01 is used for the alpha level, a researcher would make a type I error only 1 time out of 100. Thus, alpha levels of 0.05 increase type I errors while reducing type II errors. While alpha levels of 0.01 reduce type I errors, the likelihood of making a type II error increases. In nursing, 0.05 is used more commonly than 0.01; however, when multiple statistical tests are being conducted, researchers should use an alpha level of 0.01.
Term
Alternate form
Definition
A test for instrument reliability where new instruments are given in two different versions. Scores are correlated. Strong positive correlations indicate good reliability; also known as parallel form
Term
Amodal
Definition
A data set that does not have a mode
Term
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Definition
An inferential statistical test used when the level of measurement is interval or ratio and more than two groups are being compared
Term
Applied research
Definition
Research to discover knowledge that will solve a clinical problem
Term
Assent
Definition
Permission given by children to participate in research
Term
Associative relationship
Definition
A type of relationship such that when one variable changes the other variable changes
Term
Auditability
Definition
The degree to which the examination of qualitative data can be shown to be consistent over time and to support the findings
Term
Audit trail
Definition
The documentation of the research process in qualitative studies
Term
Authorship
Definition
A listing of authors in an order reflecting the amount of their contributions
Term
Axial coding
Definition
The analysis of categories and labels after open coding has been completed. takes the analysis process further and requires researchers to compare the categories and labels, defining and exploring relationships among them.
Term
Basic research
Definition
Research to gain knowledge for the sake of gaining knowledge; bench research
Term
Belmont Report
Definition
A report outlining three major principles (respect for persons, beneficence, and justice) foundational for the conduct of ethical research with human subjects
Term
Benchmarking
Definition
Comparison of organizational outcome data to other organizations or national databases
Term
Beneficence
Definition
The principle of doing good
Term
Bias
Definition
A result when extraneous variables influence or distort the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
Term
Bimodal
Definition
A data set with two modes
Term
Bivariate analysis
Definition
The use of statistics to describe the relationship between two variables
Term
Bracketing
Definition
A strategy used by qualitative researchers to set aside personal interpretations to avoid bias, Setting aside personal interpretations to avoid bias
Term
Care-related outcomes
Definition
A category of outcomes that measures the effect of nursing interventions
Term
Case control studies
Definition
Studies that compare two groups: those who have a specific condition and those who do not have the condition. This type of research usually focuses on rare disorders or disorders where there is considerable time between exposure or treatment and the onset or change in outcome. In case control studies, fewer subjects are needed than in cross-sectional studies. The disadvantages of case control studies include the potential for confounding variables, bias (recall and selection), and difficulty in selecting the control group.
Term
Case studies
Definition
A description of a single or novel event
Term
Categorical data
Definition
The lowest level of measurement whereby data are categorized simply into groups; nominal data
Term
Causal relationship
Definition
When one variable determines the presence or change in another variable (vs. correlational)
Term
Causality
Definition
The relationship that exists between a cause and its effect
Term
Change phases model
Definition
An eight-phase process to describe [image]organizational change. p. 407
Term
Chi square
Definition
A common statistic used to analyze nominal and ordinal data to find differences between groups. One reason Chi square is used so often is because it is very useful for finding differences between the groups on demographic variables. In the literature, notations for Chi square, such as X2 = 1.89, df = 1, p < 0.05, appear reported with degrees of freedom and significance.
Term
Coding
Definition
Assignment of labels to each line of transcript in qualitative analysis
Term
Coefficient of variation
Definition
A percentage used to compare standard deviations when the units of measure are different or when the means of the distributions being compared are far apart. computed by dividing the standard deviation by the mean and recording the result as a percentage.
Term
Cohort studies
Definition
Quasi-experimental studies using two or more groups
Term
Complex hypothesis
Definition
A hypothesis describing the relationships among three or more variables
Term
Concept analyses
Definition
Scholarly papers providing an exploration of the attributes and characteristics of a concept
Term
Conceptual definitions
Definition
Definitions of concepts contained in a theory that sound like dictionary definitions
Term
Concurrent validity
Definition
A test for criterion-related validity when a new instrument is administered at the same time as an instrument known to be valid. Scores of the two instruments are compared. Strong positive correlations indicate good validity.
Term
Confessionist tales
Definition
Personalized accounts by qualitative researchers that provide insight about data collection and scientific rigor
Term
Confidence intervals
Definition
Ranges established around means that estimate the probability of being correct In other words, CI estimate the degree of confidence one can have about the inferences. Researchers typically report confidence levels of 95% or 99%.
Term
Confirmability
Definition
One of four criteria for a trustworthy qualitative study related to the rigorous attempts to be objective and the maintenance of audit trails to document the research process. Evaluating interview questions to ensure that they are open ended and not leading is important for ensuring confirmability. The reader must be satisfied that the researcher has revealed that data were confirmed with the participants through member checks. The researcher’s written records should reveal a detailed review of the data, careful analysis and coding, and detailed logs and field notes.
Term
Confounding variable
Definition
Factor that interferes with the relationship between the independent and dependent variables; extraneous variable; Z variable
Term
Construct
Definition
A word or phrase used to communicate a specific key idea to others
Term
Construct validity
Definition
A threat to external validity when the instrument does not accurately measure the theoretical concepts. When appraising an article for threats to construct validity, it is important to consider information presented in the methods section of the article. This section should contain information on the reliability of the instrument used and details as to how the validity of the instrument was established.
Term
Content validity
Definition
A kind of validity to ensure that the instrument measures the concept; a test in which experts on the topic are asked to judge each item on an instrument by assigning a rating to determine its fit with the concept being measured
Term
Continuous data
Definition
Interval- or ratio-level data that use a continuum of numeric values with equal intervals
Term
Convenience sampling
Definition
Nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected because they are easy to access
Term
Convergent testing
Definition
A test for construct validity in which new instruments are administered at the same time as an instrument known to be valid. Scores of the two instruments are compared. Strong, positive correlations indicate good validity
Term
Correlated (paired) t test
Definition
A variation of the t test used when there is only one group or when the groups are related. In experimental and quasi-experimental designs, the t test is used to determine whether the means of two groups are statistically different. As with a Chi square test, researchers calculate the t statistic and consult tables using the statistic, degrees of freedom, and alpha levels to find the critical value. The critical value is obtained and a decision about its statistical significance is made. In reports, t tests are reported in the following manner: t = 2.54, p < 0.01.
Term
Correlation coefficient
Definition
An estimate, ranging from 0.00 to +1.00, that indicates the reliability of an instrument; a statistic used to describe the relationship between two variables. When used to measure reliability, +1.00 indicating a perfect reliability and 0.00 reflecting the absence of reliability. Typically, reliability coefficients of 0.80 and above are acceptable for well established instruments, while reliability coefficients of 0.70 and above are acceptable for newly developed instruments
Term
Correlational studies
Definition
Nonexperimental designs used to study relationships between two or more variables
Term
Covary
Definition
When change in one variable is associated with change in another variable
Term
Credibility
Definition
One of four criteria for establishing a trustworthy qualitative study referring to the truth or believability of findings, akin to internal validity in quantitative research. To meet the criterion of credibility, the research must be shown to be authentic and truthful. The results should make sense and be believable.
Term
Criterion-related validity
Definition
Degree to which the observed score and the true score are related there are two ways researchers test for criterion-related validity:concurrent validity and predictive validity.
Term
Cronbach’s alpha
Definition
A test for instrument reliability used with interval or ratio items; using a computer, all items are simultaneously compared
Term
Crossover design
Definition
Experimental design using two or more treatments, and subjects receive both treatments in a random order
Term
Cross-sectional
Definition
Nonexperimental designs used to gather data from a group of subjects at only one point in time
Term
Data reduction
Definition
The simplification of large amounts of data obtained from qualitative interviews or other sources
Term
Data saturation
Definition
In qualitative research the time when no new information is being obtained and repetition of information is consistently heard
Term
Degrees of freedom
Definition
A statistical concept used to refer to the number of sample values that are free to vary
Term
Dependability
Definition
One of four criteria for a trustworthy qualitative study related to consistency in the findings over time. Consistency in the findings over time showing qualitative studies to be trustworthy. Strategies to ensure include: Audit trail

Peer debriefing

Stability of observations over time

Multiple interviews

Data saturation

Coding checks that show agreement

Uniformity of responses across subjects
Term
Dependent variable
Definition
Outcome or variable that is influenced by the independent variable; Y variable
Term
Descriptive correlational design
Definition
Correlational design used to explain the degree and characteristics of relationships that exist among the variables or groups using a nondirectional hypothesis
Term
Descriptive design
Definition
A design used to describe a phenomenon
Term
Descriptive research
Definition
A category of research that is concerned with providing accurate descriptions about phenomena
Term
Descriptive statistics
Definition
collection and presentation of data used to explain characteristics of variables found in the sample
Term
Dichotomous
Definition
Nominal measurement when only two possible fixed responses exist such as yes or no
Term
Direct observation
Definition
Observing phenomena using the five senses
Term
Direction
Definition
The way two variables covary: A positive correlation occurs when an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another or when a decrease in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other.
Term
Directional hypothesis
Definition
A hypothesis describing the direction of a relationship between two or more variables
Term
Disciplined clinical inquiry model
Definition
A model developed to empower nurses, at the unit level, to transition evidence to practice. This model was developed to empower nurses in clinical practice to consider the patient, the clinical setting, resources, and evidence as they transition evidence to practice. Because the model addresses unit problems and relies on the unit staff to be engaged in the process, nurses tend to be more collaborative, thus creating a unit culture of support and accomplishment.
Term
Discussion section
Definition
Portion of a research article where interpretation of the results and how the findings extend the body of knowledge are discussed
Term
Divergent testing
Definition
A test for construct validity in which new instruments are administered at the same time as an instrument measuring the opposite of the concept. Scores of the two instruments are compared. Strong negative correlations indicate good validity.
Term
Effect size
Definition
An estimate of how large a difference will be observed between the groups. When researchers expect that the effect size is large, fewer subjects will be needed to detect differences between the groups. If the effect of an intervention is small, a larger sample is needed to be able to statistically demonstrate that the intervention was effective
Term
Effects of selection
Definition
Threats to external validity when the sample does not represent the population
Term
Emic
Definition
The insider’s or participant’s perspective
Term
Empirical evidence
Definition
Verifiable by experience through the five senses or experiment
Term
Empirical testing
Definition
Collection of objectively measurable data that are gathered through the five senses to confirm or refute a hypothesis; hypothesis testing
Term
Equivalence
Definition
An attribute of reliability in which there is agreement between alternate forms of an instrument or alternate raters
Term
Ethnography
Definition
A type of qualitative research that describes a culture
Term
Ethnonursing
Definition
Systematic study and classification of nursing care beliefs, values, and practices in a particular culture
Term
Ethnoscience
Definition
A method used in anthropology to discover new knowledge
Term
Etic
Definition
The outsider’s view of a culture or phenomenon
Term
Evidence-based practice (EBP)
Definition
Practice based on the best available evidence, patient preferences, and clinical judgment
Term
Exclusion criteria
Definition
Characteristics of elements that will not be included in the sample (predetermined)
Term
Exempt
Definition
A category of research whereby researchers do not have to obtain consent from subjects. Certain low-risk studies can be considered exempt from obtaining consent from individuals. These studies still need IRB approval. There are six exempt categories of research (Table 2-7). These exemptions do not apply to prisoners, pregnant women, fetuses, newborns, and most children (National Cancer Institute, n.d.). Researchers should never assume that their proposals qualify for exempt status, but rather they must follow the policies specified in their organizations. Most policies require that another person, usually the IRB chairperson, review proposals to ensure that they qualify for exempt status. p. 58
Term
Expedited review
Definition
A type of review by an institutional review board that can occur quickly
Term
Experimental design
Definition
Research design involving random assignment to groups and manipulation of the independent variable
Term
Explanatory research
Definition
A category of research that is concerned with identifying relationships among phenomena
Term
Exploratory design
Definition
Nonexperimental design used when little is known about a phenomenon
Term
Ex post facto
Definition
Research design in which researchers look back in time to determine possible causative factors; retrospective
Term
External validity
Definition
The degree to which the results of the study can be generalized to other subjects, settings, and times
Term
Extraneous variable
Definition
Factor that interferes with the relationship between the independent and dependent variables; confounding variable; Z variable
Term
Face validity
Definition
A test for content validity when colleagues or subjects examine an instrument and are asked whether it appears to measure the concept it purports to
Term
Factor analysis
Definition
A test for construct validity that is a statistical approach to identify items that group together. Most concepts have more than one dimension. These dimensions are known as factors. Researchers use factor analysis, a statistical approach, to identify questions that group around different factors. Thus, items that group together as one factor will have high correlations. These items may or may not highly correlate with items around a different factor. Questions that do not fit are altered or eliminated. Because factor analyses require complex, simultaneous computations of correlations, computers are needed.
Term
Factorial
Definition
Experimental design allowing researchers to manipulate more than one intervention during the same experiment
Term
Fieldwork
Definition
Time researchers spend interacting with participants through interviews, observations, and detailed records
Term
Focus groups
Definition
A strategy to obtain data from a small group of people using interview questions
Term
Full review
Definition
A type of review by an institutional review board that requires all members of the board to participate
Term
Gatekeeper
Definition
Person who facilitates or hinders the entry of the researcher into a particular group or setting
Term
GRADE
Definition
Grades of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation; an international, universal system for evaluating evidence. The GRADE system ranks the strength and quality of evidence into four levels: (1) high, (2) moderate, (3) low, and (4) very low. The recommendation is either (1) strong or (2) weak. http://www.gradeworkinggroup.org/FAQ/index.htm.
Term
Grey literature
Definition
Unpublished reports, conference papers, and grant proposals
Term
Grounded theory
Definition
A type of qualitative research that examines the process of a phenomenon and culminates in the generation of a theory. Grounded theory is the method of choice when the researcher wants to discover the process of something. The general question being asked is: What is the process of . . . ? This method is most commonly used in areas where there is little or no previous research. steps: 1) obtaining accurate evidence, 2) making empirical generalizations, 3) specifying a concept, 4) verifying theory, and 5) generating theory. p. 199
Term
Hawthorne effect
Definition
Behaviors of subjects in a study that are affected by personal values or desires to please the experimenter; reactivity
Term
Health services research
Definition
Research involving phenomena, such as cost, political factors, and culture, related to the delivery of health care
Term
Heterogeneous
Definition
The degree to which elements are diverse or not alike
Term
Historical
Definition
A type of qualitative method used to examine events or people to explain and understand the past with the hope of guiding the present and future
Term
History
Definition
A threat to internal validity when the dependent variable has been influenced by some event that occurred during the study. The threat of history occurs when the DV may have been influenced by some event, other than the IV, that occurred during the course of the study.
Term
Homogeneity
Definition
The degree to which elements are similar or homogenous
Term
Hypothesis testing
Definition
Collection of objectively measurable data that are gathered through the five senses to confirm or refute a hypothesis; empirical testing; a test for construct validity
Term
Impressionist tales
Definition
Chronicles by qualitative researchers using storytelling and more personal descriptions about the experience of conducting the study. Impressionist tales allow researchers to chronicle their experiences in a “sort of auto-ethnography” Researchers speak more personally about the experiences of conducting the study, and they are participant observers versus disconnected realists. These reports are often more like storytelling and help the reader relive the experience.
Term
Inclusion criteria
Definition
Characteristics that each element must possess to be included in the sample
Term
Independent t test
Definition
A variation of the t test used when data values vary independently from one another
Term
Independent variable
Definition
Variable that influences the dependent variable or outcome; intervention or treatment that is manipulated by the researcher; X variable
Term
Indicators
Definition
Quantitative criteria used to measure outcomes p 442
Term
Inductive reasoning
Definition
Thinking that moves from the particular to the general
Term
Inferential statistics
Definition
Analysis of data as the basis for prediction related to the phenomenon of interest (predictive statistics)
Term
Informant
Definition
Individual in a qualitative study; participant
Term
Instrumentation
Definition
Threat to internal validity when changes are made in the way variables are measured or when data collectors obtain data in an inconsistent manner. To control for this threat, researchers need to ensure comprehensive training of all data collectors. Researchers also evaluate interrater reliability to determine the degree of consistency among individuals collecting data. p. 152
Term
Integrative review
Definition
Scholarly papers that synthesize published studies and articles to answer questions about phenomena of interest
Term
Interaction of treatment and history
Definition
A threat to external validity concerning how the effects from the intervention might be changed by events occurring in the past or future
Term
Interaction of treatment with selection of subjects
Definition
A threat to external validity that concerns whether the independent variable will affect other individuals in the same way. This requires consideration of the difference between the accessible population and the target population of interest
Term
Interaction of treatment and setting
Definition
A threat to external validity when an intervention conducted in one setting cannot be generalized to another setting where the same intervention is used
Term
Intermediate outcomes
Definition
Changes that occur after an innovation is introduced. Lifestyle modifications, such as weight loss and smoking cessation after enrolling in a wellness program, can be examples of intermediate outcomes.
Term
Internal consistency
Definition
An attribute of reliability when all items on an instrument measure the same concept
Term
Internal validity
Definition
The degree to which one can conclude that the independent variable, not extraneous variables, produced changes in the dependent variable. To establish internal validity, researchers must demonstrate that results obtained were caused by the IV. Common threats to internal validity include selection bias, history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, mortality, and statistical conclusion validity.
Term
Interrater reliability
Definition
A test for instrument reliability when two observers measure the same event. Scores are correlated. Strong positive correlations indicate good reliability
Term
Interval
Definition
A continuum of numeric values with equal intervals but lacks an absolute zero
Term
Introduction
Definition
Component part of a research article that contains a statement of the problem and a purpose statement
Term
Iowa model for EBP to promote quality care
Definition
A systematic method explaining how organizations change practice. In this model nurses consider the following questions: is the topic a priority for the organization, is there a sufficient research base, and is change appropriate for adoption for practice?
Term
Item to total correlation
Definition
A test for instrument reliability when each item is correlated to the total score; reliable items have strong correlations with the total score. Items with low correlations to the total score are examined, and decisions are made to change or eliminate them.
Term
Justice
Definition
The principle of equity or fairness in the distribution of burdens and benefits
Term
Key informants
Definition
Individuals who have intimate knowledge of a subject and are willing to share it with the researcher
Term
Known group testing
Definition
A test for construct validity in which new instruments are administered to individuals known to be high or low on the characteristic being measured. Researchers expect that there will be significantly different scores between the high group and the low group. p. 231
Term
Kuder-Richardson coefficient
Definition
A test for instrument reliability for use with dichotomous items; using a computer, all items are simultaneously compared
Term
Kurtosis
Definition
The peakedness or flatness of a distribution of [image]data
Term
Levels of evidence
Definition
Predetermined scales that guide decisions for ranking evidence; evidence hierarchies
Term
Levels of measurement
Definition
A system of classifying measurements according to a hierarchy of measurement and the type of statistical tests that are appropriate; levels are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
Term
Likert scales
Definition
Ordinal level scale containing seven points on an agree or disagree continuum. Seven points allows for a neutral opinion. Some researchers find a neutral response hard to interpret. Therefore, researchers may adapt the scale to eliminate the neutral point by having an even number of points. Scales containing fewer than seven points are known as Likert–type scales
Term
Longitudinal design
Definition
Design used to gather data about subjects at more than one point in time
Term
Long-term outcomes
Definition
Primary changes in patient behaviors or status such as a reduction in blood cholesterol levels
Term
Magnitude
Definition

The strength of the relationship existing between two variables. A correlation can range from a perfect positive correlation of 1.00 to a perfect negative correlation of 1.00. A correlation of zero means that there is no relationship between the two variables. It is generally accepted that correlations ranging between 0.10 and 0.30 are considered to be weak, 0.30 to 0.50 moderate, and greater than 0.50 strong; however, the final determination is based on the variables being examined. It is important to remember that magnitude is not dependent on or related to the direction of the correlation.

 

[image]

Term
Mandated reporting
Definition
Data that must be shared with supervising or governmental agencies according to a specified timeline
Term
Manipulation
Definition
The ability of researchers to control the independent variable p. 146
Term
Manuscript
Definition
A scholarly paper prior to its publication
Term
Maturation
Definition
A threat to internal validity when subjects change by growing or becoming more mature p. 151
Term
Measurement error
Definition
The difference between the true score and the observed score p. 228
Term
Measures of variability
Definition
Measures providing information about how different data are within a set; measures of dispersion
Term
Member checks
Definition
A strategy for qualitative studies in which the researcher goes back to participants and shares the results with them to ensure the findings reflect what participants said
Term
Memoing
Definition
A technique used in qualitative research to record ideas that come to researchers as they live with the data
Term
Meta-analyses
Definition
cholarly papers that combine results of studies, both published and unpublished, into a measurable format and statistically estimate the effects of proposed interventions
Term
Meta-synthesis
Definition
Scholarly papers that combine results from qualitative studies
Term
Methodological studies
Definition
Studies for the purpose of creating and testing new instruments
Term
Methods section
Definition
Major portion of a research article describing the study design, sample, and data collection
Term
Minimal risk
Definition
The probability and magnitude of harm from participating in a research study is not greater than what is ordinarily encountered in daily life
Term
Modality
Definition
The number of modes found in a data distribution
Term
Model
Definition
Pictorial representation of concepts and their interrelationships
Term
Model of diffusion of innovations
Definition
A model describing how new ideas become accepted. The model includes four major concepts: innovation, communication, time, and social system. Rogers (2003) defines diffusion as “the process by which (1) an innovation (2) is communicated through certain channels (3) over time (4) among the members of a social system”
Term
Model of EBP levels of collaboration
Definition

A model explaining how five levels are intertwined to contribute to EBP

[image]

Term
Model-testing
Definition
Correlational design to test a hypothesized theoretical model; causal modeling or path analysis. All related variables are identified, and specific hypothesized relationships are stated. Researchers create graphic representations or paths to show the relationships among the variables. Then statistical analysis is done to test all of the relationships at one time. The analysis will determine how well the data collected actually “fit” the hypothesized model. The better the fit of the model to the analysis, the more likely it is that the predicted theoretical relationships are true in reality. p. 179
Term
Multiple experimental groups
Definition
Experimental design using two or more experimental groups with one control group
Term
Multiple regression
Definition
An inferential statistical test used to describe the relationship of three or more variables. A change in one variable is usually the result of many factors. Thus, when researchers want to study the relationship of many independent variables on a dependent variable, they use multiple regression; used when variables are measured at the interval or ratio level. p. 331
Term
Multitrait-multimethod
Definition
Test for construct validity in which a new instrument, established instrument of same concept, and established instrument of opposite concept are given at the same time; strong positive and negative correlations indicate good validity
Term
Narrative reviews
Definition
Article based on only the very common or uncommon elements of works with little concern for research methods, designs, or settings; traditional literature review
Term
Negative case analysis
Definition
A qualitative strategy involving the analysis of cases that do not fit patterns or categories used to enhance transferability
Term
Negatively skewed
Definition
A distribution when the mean is less than the median and the mode; the longer tail is pointing to the left
Term
Nominal
Definition
The lowest level of measurement whereby data are categorized simply into groups; categorical data e.g. sex, occupation
Term
Nondirectional hypothesis
Definition
A hypothesis stating that a relationship exists between two variabled but it does not predict the direction of the relationship
Term
Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest
Definition
A quasi-experimental design where two groups are measured before and after an intervention. differs from the classic experimental design in that researchers are unable to randomly assign subjects to groups. Because researchers are unable to randomize in these designs, the nonintervention group is referred to as a comparison group rather than a control group. Researchers are able to measure both groups on the DV prior to and after the intervention p. 173
Term
Nonequivalent groups posttest only
Definition
A quasi-experimental design involving two groups who are measured after an intervention with little control for extraneous variables. often referred to as preexperimental rather than quasi-experimental. The difference between pre- and quasi-experimental designs is that quasi-experimental designs, while lacking some elements of an experiment, use other strategies to control for extraneous variables. Many threats to internal validity can be found in these posttest only designs. One group posttest only designs provide a low level of evidence, and no change in nursing practice should be made based on this type of design.
Term
Nonexperimental
Definition
A research design that lacks manipulation of the independent variable and random assignment to groups
Term
Nonparametric
Definition
Inferential statistics involving nominal or ordinal level data to infer to the population. For example, data collected using Likert scales would be analyzed using nonparametric tests. Because these tests are considered to be less powerful, the level of confidence nurses have about inferring to the population is not as strong as when parametric tests are used.
Term
Nonpropositional knowledge
Definition
The art of nursing or knowledge that is obtained through practice
Term
Nonsignificant
Definition
When critical values fall within three standard deviations of the mean; findings do not support the research hypothesis; findings that support the null hypothesis. Statistically significant critical values fall in the tails of the normal distributions, usually three standard deviations from the mean or where about only 0.3% of the data occur. Thus, when critical values are in that area, researchers believe it is appropriate to claim that the findings did not happen by chance.
Term
Normal distribution
Definition
A representation of data having a distinctive bell-shaped curve and is symmetric about the mean
Term
Null hypothesis
Definition
A hypothesis stating that there is no relationship between the variables; the statistical hypothesis
Term
Nuremberg Code
Definition
Ethical code of conduct to guide investigators when conducting research using human subjects
1. The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential.
2. The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods or means of study, and not random and unnecessary in nature.
3. The experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study that the anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment.
4. The experiment should be so conducted as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury.
Term
Nursing-sensitive outcomes
Definition
Results that demonstrate the effectiveness of nursing care. Outcomes of nursing care should be measurable. These measurements can assist in determining responsibility in patient care. Outcome-based measurements are a means used to establish evidence-based practice (EBP) and to evaluate the care delivered.
Term
Nursing quality indicators
Definition
Outcomes of nursing care, identified by the American Nurses Association, meant to address patient safety and quality of care. Organizations committed to quality assurance collect data on the following initiatives:

< Patient satisfaction with pain management
< Patient satisfaction with educational information
< Patient satisfaction with overall care
< Patient satisfaction with nursing care
< Mix of RNs, licensed practical nurses (LPNs), and unlicensed staff caring for patients in acute care settings
< Total nursing care hours provided per patient day
< Pressure ulcers
< Patient falls
< Nosocomial infection rate
< Nursing staff satisfaction
Term
One group posttest only
Definition
A preexperimental design involving one group and a posttest with little control for extraneous variables
Term
Open coding
Definition
The grouping of qualitative data into categories that seem logical. p. 343
Term
Operational definitions
Definition
Definitions that explicitly state how the variable will be measured or operationalized; empirical definitions (vs. conceptual)p. 127
Term
Ordinal
Definition
A continuum of numeric values where the intervals are not meant to be equal e.g. Likert
Term
Outcomes research
Definition
Studies about the effects of care and treatments on individuals and populations
Term
Panel Design
Definition
A type of longitudinal design in which the same subjects, drawn from the general population, provide data at multiple points in time e.g. national nurses' health study
Term
Parallel form
Definition
A test for instrument reliability where new instruments are given in two different versions. Scores are correlated. Strong positive correlations indicate good reliability; also known as alternate form
Term
Parametric
Definition
Inferential statistical tests involving interval- or ratio-level data to infer to the population. Parametric tests are used to infer to the population when specific conditions have been met: These conditions include: a) use of probability sampling, b) normal distribution of data, c) measurement of variables at the interval or ratio level, and d) reduction of error. These important conditions make parametric tests especially powerful. When parametric tests are used, nurses can have high levels of confidence about the conclusions made.
Term
Participant observation
Definition
Role of the researcher in qualitative methods when the researcher is not merely an observer but also a participant during data collection. Because researchers are considered to be tools for obtaining information, they cannot be merely a detached observer in most cases. The role of participant observer takes on an even greater meaning if the researcher has personally experienced the phenomenon being studied.In such a case, however, the researcher must be careful not to allow the bias of personal experience to cloud the results that arise from the data being collected from others.
Term
Passive rejection
Definition
Lack of consideration given to adopting an innovation; hence old practices are continued
Term
Pearson's r
Definition
An inferential statistic used when two variables are measured at the interval or ratio level. When researchers pose hypotheses about the relationships among variables, they are testing for the significance of the correlation coefficient. When two variables are measured at the interval or ratio level, they calculate the Pearson’s r statistic. The degrees of freedom for this test are always N - 2, which means that the correlation coefficient can be affected by the sample size. It is possible for a small correlation coefficient to be statistically significant when there is a large sample. In the literature, the notation r = 0.62, p < 0.01 is used. A helpful way to think about variance is to think of a pie chart. The entire pie chart represents all the variables that can contribute to changes in the dependent variable. Each r2 indicates how large a section of the pie chart that variable earns. With this information, knowledge of one variable can be used to predict the value of the other variable. p. 331
Term
Peer debriefing
Definition
A technique used in qualitative research when the researcher enlists the help of another person, who is a peer, to discuss the data and findings. Peer debriefing provides researchers with another professional’s opinion and views of the data. A peer debriefing should be at the same educational and positional level as the researcher and be considered a colleague but not a supervisor or boss.
Term
Percentage distributions
Definition
A descriptive statistic used to group data to make results more comprehensible; calculated by dividing the frequency of an event by the total number of events p. 297
Term
Percentile
Definition
A measure or rank representing the percentage of cases that a given value exceeds
Term
Performance-related outcomes
Definition
A type of outcome related to how nurses perform their job
Term
Persistent observation
Definition
When the researcher has spent sufficient quality time with participants attempting to describe and capture the essence of the phenomenon
Term
Personal narrative
Definition
A way of conveying the meaning of experiences through a storytelling approach
Term
Phenomenology
Definition
A type of qualitative research that describes the lived experience to achieve understanding of an experience from the perspective of the participants
Term
Physiological measures
Definition
Data obtained from the measurement of biological, chemical, and micro-biological phenomena
Term
Pilot
Definition
A small study to test a new intervention with a small number of subjects before testing with larger samples; adopting an innovation on a trial basis
Term
Population
Definition
The entire group of elements that meet study inclusion criteria
Term
Population parameters
Definition
Characteristics of a population that are inferred from characteristics of a sample
Term
Position of the median
Definition
Calculated by using the formula (n + 1)/2, where n is the number of data values in the set
Term
Positively skewed
Definition
A distribution in which the mean is greater than the median and the mode; longer tail is pointing to the right
Term
Power analysis
Definition
A statistical method used to determine the acceptable sample size to detect the true effect of the independent variable. When nurses read that a power analysis was conducted, they can have greater confidence that the sample size was appropriate for the study and be confident applying the findings to the target population.
Term
Practice guidelines
Definition
Systematically developed statements to assist healthcare providers with making appropriate decisions about health care for specific clinical circumstances
Term
Precision
Definition
A strategy used to narrow the parameters of a literature search. When a search term displays a precise retrieval, the records are usually smaller in number but more closely matched to the entered search terms. This search strategy is best when the information being sought has been written about in a number of authoritative sources by a number of knowledgeable people. The search can be narrowed without undue concern about the loss of some relevant records because it is likely that the search contained needed information in the retrieved records.
Term
Predictive correlational
Definition
Correlational design in which researchers hypothesize which variables are predictors and which are outcomes. lthough researchers may be able to predict a statistically significant relationship, the design is still correlational and causality cannot be assumed.
Term
Predictive research
Definition
A category of research concerned with forecasting precise relationships between dimensions of phenomena or differences between groups. This category of research addresses “when” the phenomena will occur.
Term
Predictive validity
Definition
A test for criterion-related validity where a new instrument is given at two different times and scores are correlated. Strong positive correlations indicate good validity
Term
Preexperimental
Definition
A posttest only design that involves manipulation of the independent variable but lacks control for extraneous variables
Term
Problem statement
Definition
A formal statement describing the problem addressed in the study
Term
Proposition
Definition
A statement about the relationship between two or more concepts
Term
Propositional knowledge
Definition
The science of nursing or knowledge that is obtained from research and scholarship. “formal, explicit, derived from research and scholarship and concerned with generalisability”
Term
Prospective Designs
Definition
Studies that begin in the present by identifying presumed causes and then follow subjects into the future to determine if the hypothesized effects actually occur
Term
Purpose statement
Definition
A statement indicating the aim of the study
Term
Pyramid of evidence
Definition

A model showing how evidence can be categorized from strong to weak

 

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Term
Qualification
Definition
Limiting fields of search, commonly using limits such as author, title, or subject
Term
Qualitative data analysis
Definition
The production of knowledge that results from analysis of words. Using words versus numbers to explain phenomena is both more subjective and more labor intensive. the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data
Term
Quasi-experimental
Definition
Research designs involving the manipulation of the independent variable but lack either random assignment to groups or a control group
Term
Random error
Definition
Error that occurs by chance during measurement. It is difficult for researchers to control for random error because it results from transient factors. Random error can be attributed to subject factors, instrumentation variations, or environmental factors.
Term
Random sampling
Definition
Technique for selecting elements whereby each has the same chance of being selected
Term
Range
Definition
The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a data set
Term
Ratio
Definition
The highest level of measurement that involves numeric values that begin with an absolute zero and have equal intervals
Term
Realist tales
Definition
A real-life account of the culture being studied presented in a third person voice clearly separating researchers from participants
Term
Referential adequacy
Definition
A technique used in qualitative research when multiple sources of data are compared and the findings hold true. Referential adequacy is satisfied when a researcher can refer to other sources of data, such as photos or journals, for comparison and have the results hold true when referencing these other data.
Term
Reliability
Definition
Obtainment of consistent measurements over time
Term
Representativeness
Definition
The degree to which elements of the sample are like elements in the population
Four Steps to Ensure Representative Samples

1. Define and clearly articulate the target population for the study by listing all of the essential characteristics of the target population or eligibility criteria for inclusion in the study.
2. Identify the population the researcher has access to for the study, taking care to verify that the accessible population closely resembles the target population by using the same eligibility criteria.
3. Develop a method to approach the accessible population. Some researchers refer to this as a sampling frame. The sampling frame is a practical method used to gain access to the population that is readily available to the researcher.
4. Select subjects from the accessible population to include in the sample.
Term
Research imperative
Definition
An ethical rule stating that nurses should conduct research
Term
Research question
Definition
An interrogatory statement describing the variables and population of the research study (PICOT question)
Term
Respect for persons
Definition
Principle based on ethical conviction that individuals should be treated as autonomous and that individuals with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection
Term
Results section
Definition
Component of a research article where the methods used to analyze data and characteristics of the sample are reported
Term
Retrospective
Definition
Research design in which researchers look back in time to determine possible causative factors; expost facto
Term
Review of literature
Definition
A section of a research article that contains an unbiased, comprehensive, synthesized description of relevant previously published studies
Term
Rule of 68-95-99.7
Definition
Rule stating that for every sample 68% of the data will fall within one standard deviation of the mean; 95% will fall within two standard deviations of the mean; 99.7% of the data will fall within three standard deviations of the mean
Term
Sample
Definition
A select group of elements that is representative of all eligible elements
Term
Sample statistics
Definition
Numerical data describing characteristics of the sample
Term
Sampling bias
Definition
threat to external validity when a sample includes elements that over- or underrepresent characteristics when compared to elements in the target population
Term
Sampling error
Definition
Error resulting when elements in the sample do not adequately represent the population
Term
Scales
Definition
Used to assign a numeric value or score on a continuum e.g. Likert scales, pain scale
Term
Secondary sources
Definition
Commentaries, summaries, reviews, or interpretation of primary sources; often written by those not involved in the original work
Term
Selection bias
Definition
A threat to internal validity that occurs when the change in the dependent variable is a result of differences in the characteristics of the subjects before they entered a study. Selection bias can be minimized somewhat by the use of random assignment to groups.
Term
Semiquartile range
Definition
The range of the middle 50% of the data
Term
Significance level
Definition
The alpha level established prior to the beginning of a study usually <.05 or <.01
Term
Simple hypothesis
Definition
A hypothesis describing the relationship between two variables
Term
Skewed
Definition
An asymmetrical distribution of data
Term
Solomon four group design
Definition
An experimental design involving four groups, some of which receive the intervention and others that serve as controls. Some groups are measured before and after the intervention while others are measured only after the intervention. p. 168
Term
Split-half reliability
Definition
A test for instrument reliability in which the items are divided to form two instruments. Give both instruments and compare the halves
Term
Stability
Definition
An attribute of reliability when instruments render the same scores with repeated measures under the same circumstances
Term
Statistical conclusion validity
Definition
The confidence one has that the results of the statistical analysis accurately reflect the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables
Term
Stetler model
Definition

Step-by-step instructions for integrating research into practice

 

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Term
Study validity
Definition
Ability to accept results as logical, reasonable, and justifiable based on the evidence presented
Term
Systematic error
Definition
Error that occurs in the same way with each measurement
Term
t statistics
Definition
Inferential statistical test to determine if a statistically significant difference between the groups exists
Term
Testing
Definition
A threat to internal validity when a pretest influences the way subjects respond on a posttest
Term
Test-retest reliability
Definition
A test for instrument reliability when new instruments are given at two different times under the same conditions. Scores are correlated. Strong positive correlations indicate good reliability.
Term
Theoretical framework
Definition
The structure of a study that links the theory concepts to the study variables; a section of a research article that describes the theory used
Term
Theory
Definition
A set of concepts linked through propositions to provide an explanation of a phenomenon
Term
Therapeutic imperative
Definition
An ethical rule stating that nurses should perform actions that benefit the patient
Term
Time series
Definition
A quasi-experimental design where one group is measured prior to administering the intervention and then multiple times after the intervention is concluded. This type of design may be used when neither randomization nor a comparison group is possible. Researchers may opt to study one group over a prolonged period of time prior to administering the intervention and then make multiple observations after the intervention is conducted. p. 173
Term
Transferability
Definition
One of four criteria for a trustworthy qualitative study relating to whether findings from one study can be transferred to a similar context.
ways to enhance: Clear explanation of the boundaries/limitations of the study
Description of the context of the study
Thick description
Deliberately trying to find negative case examples
Checking for representativeness of the data
Term
Translational research
Definition
Research for the purpose of linking research findings to the point of care. “transforms scientific findings or discoveries from basic laboratory, clinical, or population studies into new clinical tools, processes, or applications”
Term
Translational research model
Definition
Provides specific strategies organizations can use to improve adoption of an evidence-based innovation
Specific components of this model describe how characteristics of the innovation, communication process, social system, and users lead to the adoption of innovations. Organizational characteristics that influence the use of EBP include providing expectations that policies are evidence based, access to clinical researchers, authority to change practice, and support from peers, administrators, and other disciplines
Term
Trend studies
Definition
use nonexperimental designs to gather data about the variables of interest from different samples from the target population across time p. 159
Term
Trustworthiness
Definition
The quality, authenticity, and truthfulness of findings from qualitative research
It relates to the degree of trust, or confidence, readers have in the results. Trustworthiness can be established by meeting four criteria: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability
Term
Type I error
Definition
Occurs when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it should have been accepted
Term
Type II error
Definition
Occurs when researchers inaccurately conclude that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables when an actual relationship does exist
Term
Uncertainty
Definition
the degree to which a number of alternatives are perceived with respect to the occurrence of an event and the relative probability of these alternatives. Individuals typically select to adopt an innovation when uncertainty is reduced. When there is a significant amount of uncertainty about a new innovation, individuals generally reject adopting the innovation.
Term
Univariate analysis
Definition
The use of statistical tests to provide information about one variable. includes information regarding frequency distributions, measures of central tendency, shape of the distribution, and measures of variability
Term
Validity
Definition
The degree that an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
Term
Visual analog scale (VAS)
Definition
Ratio level scale of a 100 mm line anchored on each end with words or symbols
Term
Wheel of professionalism in nursing
Definition
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Term
z scores
Definition
To make comparisons among unlike data requires that all the data means be converted to standardized units called standardized or z scores. Z scores are then used to describe the distance a score is away from the mean per standard deviation. Using the z score allows researchers to compare unlike data such as age and weight.
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