Term
|
Definition
| predicting how a future outcome will make us feel, often wrong (relate to how currently feeling) |
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Term
| Implementation Intention and Why its useful |
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Definition
When, where, and how you are going to meet a goal
helps identify potential problems
persistent in the face of distraction |
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Term
| Growth vs Fixed Mindset, can they be changed? |
|
Definition
Growth: see intelligence as malleable (can get better), choose more difficult tasks to challenge self, dont give up as easily
Fixed: want positive evaluation of tasks, see intelligence as fixed (either have it or dont), dont strive to better self, can be taught to have a growth mindset by teaching brain plasticity |
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Term
| what are the long-term consequences of each mindset? |
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Definition
growth: choose more challenging paths, increased persistence, willing to look "silly" in order to learn new skills
fixed: select easier goals, less likely to persist when do poorly, pattern of avoidance |
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Term
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Definition
| capacity: 7+-2 chunks, info lost within 20-30 seconds if not used |
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Term
| getting around the limitations of WM |
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Definition
| chunk, make more automatic, use artifacts (notes) to help remember |
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Term
what is meant by 'the rich get richer'
-learning |
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Definition
what you already know affects how you learn, the more you know about something the easier it is to apple new info to it
elaboration |
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Term
| what is the key variable for practice that affects how long a memory is retained? |
|
Definition
| spread practice out over time and alternate retrieving info (test!) |
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Term
| testing effect and how retrieval helps you learn |
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Definition
testing self improves memory
able to see what don't know
practice of retrieval is most beneficial |
|
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Term
| what is meant by learning thrives on failure |
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Definition
learn from mistakes most often
attitudes matter
why did this error occur? ect |
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Term
| major findings in the 'chess expert' study |
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Definition
| chess experts and novices were shown typical and non typical chess layouts to memorize. On the typical layouts, experts were much better at remembering but on the non-typical layouts they were the same (experts can chunk when typical) |
|
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Term
| how long does it take to gain expertise |
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Definition
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Term
| Expert vs experienced non-expert |
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Definition
expert: uses progressive problem solving, takes on increasingly difficult tasks
non-expert: uses problem reduction, does same thing over and over until easy |
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Term
| deliberate practice and how it relates to expertise |
|
Definition
activity specifically intended to improve performance, not for fun
effortful and attention demanding
need to become expert |
|
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Term
| blindsight and its implications for the function of conscious awareness |
|
Definition
unable to see objects to the left but when object moves can indicate which direction
nonconcious can determine direction of movement without being able to see abject |
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Term
| implications on our 'readiness potential' for our experience of 'free will' |
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Definition
| neurons fire right before action/decide to act, so do we really have free will? |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| see colors/ numbers when hear certain things/sounds |
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Term
| what kinds of group biases have parallels with individual biases |
|
Definition
group attribution error: tend to attribute your own group members' actions to circumstances and other group members' actions to disposition
group serving bias: dispositional attributions for successes and situational for failures
outgroup homogeneity bias: perceive own group members as being more varied than others |
|
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Term
| group polarization effect |
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Definition
| pre-existing beliefs are strengthened/weakened depending on the groups views |
|
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Term
| general findings w respect to group vs individual performance |
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Definition
| groups perform better than the average individual but the best member's performance usually exceeds that of the group |
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Term
| over confidence (do we always become more accurate with more info?) |
|
Definition
over-estimating the accuracy of our judgments
we become more confident with more info but not more correct |
|
|
Term
| when is overconfidence in judgment typically found |
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Definition
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|
Term
| what factor appears to be especially important w respect to good calibration |
|
Definition
| constant and good feedback |
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|
Term
| self-perpetuating beliefs |
|
Definition
confirmation bias
pple want to see patterns that confirm their beliefs
ppl weigh confirming info more than dis confirming info
implication: you can almost always find info to support a belief |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
false conceptions that ultimately become tru bc of behavioral changes they cause
ex. kids labeled gifted excelled more than others even if weren't actually gifted bc of change in teachers behaviors toward them |
|
|
Term
| how can you fix self-fulfilling prophecies? |
|
Definition
frame questions in a way that encourages disconfirming info or neutral
encourage ppl to see that the confirming questions are not socially acceptable |
|
|
Term
| describe the major behavioral traps |
|
Definition
time delay: short-term gratification leads to long-term consequences
ignorance: negative consequences are not known beforehand and cannot get out easily
investment: spent time/money keeps us involved when we would normally walk away (sunk cost)
deterioration: behavior becomes more costly over time (drugs, need more and more)
collective: we do in groups what we normally would not do alone |
|
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Term
| what tactics can be used to over come traps? |
|
Definition
consider costs of withdrawal before joining
decide whether to stay/leave without considering sunk costs
pretend you just started
have someone else decide for you |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Novel (original) and Useful
the extent to which experts in a field agree that something is creative |
|
|
Term
| difference bt big"C" creativity and little 'c' creativity |
|
Definition
Big "C": major works, tend to stand out
little "c": every day creativity |
|
|
Term
| (wallas) stages of creativity |
|
Definition
i. preparation (think of possible solutions)
ii. incubation (leave the problem alone for a while)
iii. illumination (insight, "aha!" moment)
iv. verification (does it work?) |
|
|
Term
| incubation and Smith and Blackenship's findings |
|
Definition
incubation: unable to solve a problem so set it aside and return - often able to solve when return
findings: participants of study did better wen interrupted during problem solving, could forget less useful info |
|
|
Term
| insight and metcalfe and weibe's findings |
|
Definition
Insight: the right answer "pops" into mind
findings: when rating how close participants felt they were to the answer, their feelings of closeness shot up immediately before answering (whether right or wrong) |
|
|
Term
| Geneplore model of creativity and Finkes findings |
|
Definition
geneplore: develop potential ideas and explore those ideas to determine usefulness
geneplore=generation+exploration
findings: participants had to choose parts or were given specific parts and then asked to create a creative product, more creative products were created by the participants who were given parts, had to ignore functional fixedness |
|
|
Term
| how does confirmation bias affect how you process consistent and inconsistent info? |
|
Definition
| we carefully scrutinize info that does not fit and usually accept into that does |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| what you want the facts to be, as opposed to what they really are |
|
|
Term
| combatting confirmation bias |
|
Definition
step back
consider other perspectives
how could it have turned out differently (counter factual reasoning) |
|
|
Term
| characteristics of emotion |
|
Definition
typically accompanied by a physiological change
involve subjective feelings
physical expressions unique to emotion
give rise to associated thouhts
-subjective feelings lead to physiological changes and particular facial expressions that are universal |
|
|
Term
| primary and secondary emotions |
|
Definition
primary: universal, cross-culture, born w/ big six: happy, sad, fear, surprise, anger, disgust
Secondary: more complex, usually learned; optimism, hope, love ect |
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|
Term
| what aspects distinguish bt emotional states |
|
Definition
time: emotions are short (moods are long)
degree of differentiation: how closely related that feeling is to the state |
|
|
Term
| major functions of emotion |
|
Definition
| communication, evaluative info, alarm system, motivation, learning |
|
|
Term
| subcortical and neocortical routes for fear processing |
|
Definition
sub:direct, quick, can make mistakes; eyes>thalamus>amygdal
neo: slow, more precise; eyes>thalamus>visual cortex> amygdala |
|
|
Term
| how does emotion enhance cognition |
|
Definition
enhances attention for emotional events
particularly for fear-related stimuli
enhancement for memory of emotionally arousing events |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| ppl have greater retention for emotional events than non-emotional ones |
|
|
Term
| Cahill's findings and implications |
|
Definition
| participants saw a series of pictures and heard ether a boring story or an emotionally arousing story, better memory for emotional story |
|
|
Term
| anxiety effects on attention and WM |
|
Definition
narrow attentional focus (usually focus on whatever's making you anxious)
increased detection of threatening stimuli |
|
|
Term
| how does positive affect impact DM |
|
Definition
| includes a global focus (forest as opposed to the trees) |
|
|
Term
| hoe does obsessiveness impact DM |
|
Definition
delayed Dm
reduced ability to recall recent activities
reduced confidence in distinguishing between actual and imagined events (source monitoring issues) |
|
|
Term
| function of VmPFC(Damasio) |
|
Definition
prefrontal cortx
emotion plays a big role in DM |
|
|
Term
| somatic marker hypothesis |
|
Definition
overtime one learns that behaviors have good/bad consequences
when making a decision emotional system activates the somatic marker for the alternatives
infor used to delay gratification for better alternatives
basis of the 'gut feeling' in DM, decision guided without conscious knowledge of the source |
|
|
Term
| Bechera's findings (Iowa Gambling) |
|
Definition
b4 knowing which deck is good/bad, participants started choosing only the good deck
mind knew bf they did that there was a good and bad deck |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
emotion: little demands on WM; automatic
Reason: large demands on WM; analytic
Emotion is corrected by reason at the cost of WM (will power) |
|
|
Term
| emotional carryover effect |
|
Definition
| if one thing makes you mad you can carry that anger over to something else completely separate |
|
|
Term
| how can emotion derail good intentions |
|
Definition
| ex. when hungry it is harder to resist junk food, when not hungry can |
|
|
Term
| does reasoning always improve the quality of our DM |
|
Definition
| sometimes think too much, better to use reasoning, but not always perfect |
|
|
Term
| how do "hot" and "cold" states affect our predictions about the future |
|
Definition
hot: hungry, thirsty, ect
cold; comfortable states
often make poor choices bc mispredict future feelings
hard to override current feelings |
|
|
Term
| collective statistical illiteracy |
|
Definition
| many pxs, drs, ect are illiterate when interpreting statistics |
|
|
Term
| 3 main points of the monograph |
|
Definition
statistical illiteracy is:
common to pxs, drs, politicians, etc
created by nontransparent framing of info
can have a serious consequence for health |
|
|
Term
| absolute vs relative risk |
|
Definition
absolute: smaller, more insight
relative: larger, can be misleading
media tends to report relative info |
|
|
Term
| conditional probabilities and natural frequencies |
|
Definition
COnd Prob: info presented including sensitivity and false positive results
Nat Freq: transparent view of same info - better insight
-easier to understand nat freq bc dont include uneccessary info |
|
|
Term
| positive predictive value |
|
Definition
| the probability that a person has a disease given a positive screening test (just because positive, doesnt meant they for sure have the disease) |
|
|
Term
Survival vs Mortality rates
-Lead-time bias |
|
Definition
Survival has to to with ration diagnosed who survive in a particular time frame
mortality rate deals with proportion that will die from the disease ever
lead-time bias: even if time of death is not changed by screening, advancing the time of diagnosis can result in increased 5 year survival rates, causing stats to be misleading |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
detection of a pseudo disease (not actual disease)
leads to surprisingly high survival rates |
|
|
Term
| 4 questions to ask about all risks |
|
Definition
risk of what?
time frame?
how big?
does it apply to me? |
|
|
Term
| potential harms of screening tests |
|
Definition
costs
inconvenience
false alarms |
|
|
Term
| false positive and false negative errors in screening |
|
Definition
false pos: test shows have a disease when dont
false neg: test shows dont have a disease when do |
|
|
Term
| Specificity and Sensitivity |
|
Definition
Specificity:proportion of negative tests among clients without a disease
Sensitivity: proportion of positive tests among clients with the disease |
|
|
Term
| Necessary precondition for minimal statistical literacy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an emotional need for certainty when none exists |
|
|
Term
| according to Kalet, Roberts and Fletcher how many pxs discussed risk/benefits with their dr during visit? How does this relate to ppls understanding of risk |
|
Definition
1 of 4
-think they understand when they dont |
|
|
Term
| 3 problems w the quality of Press Coverage of health statistics |
|
Definition
| no numbers, non transparent #s, no cautions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pxs should be informed about all the pros/cons of a tx and its alternatives and should decide for themselves which tx to use |
|
|
Term
| what is meant by number needed to treat |
|
Definition
| the number of pxs that must be treated in order to save one |
|
|
Term
| author's 4 recommendations on probability formatting and frequency formatting |
|
Definition
use frequency statements, not single events
use absolute risk over relative risk
use mortality rates over survival rates
use natural frequencies over conditional probabilities |
|
|
Term
| why do medical journals not make transparency a requirement for submissions? |
|
Definition
| funding from pharmeceutical industry |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| physicians do not even inform pxs about tests or txs performed on them |
|
|
Term
| which statistics are used to communicate risk in transparent forms? |
|
Definition
| absolute risk, natural frequency, mortality rates |
|
|
Term
| what is meant bt 'geography is destiny' and 'specialty is destiny' |
|
Definition
geography:local habits affect tx plan, huge regional differences, ppl follow local customs
specialty: drs. specialty determines tx, even if another is better |
|
|
Term
| two consequences of misleading advertising |
|
Definition
emotional manipulation
impediments to inform consent and shared DM |
|
|
Term
| how do advertisements typically discuss the benefits and harms of new drugs |
|
Definition
| benefits in large numbers and harms in small ones |
|
|
Term
| two reasons why collective statistical illiteracy persists |
|
Definition
ppl are not educated about stats
media fuels misunderstanding by framing stats |
|
|
Term
| why do schools contribute so little to statistical illiteracy? |
|
Definition
taught too late in school
confuses students
examples are borning
cant keep attention |
|
|
Term
| 4 major concerns of teachers w instructing young children about stats |
|
Definition
-more important things to teach
-stats is a game of chance, children too young
-difficult to teach
-math teachers know very little about stats |
|
|
Term
| 4 goals of statistical thinking as a problem solving discipline |
|
Definition
-learn that societal problems can be solved by critical thinking
-develop empirical thinking skills
-develop critical thinking skills
-use transparent representations |
|
|
Term
| how did James Randi demonstrate to the students how they could be fooled be individualized horoscopes |
|
Definition
| gave them all the same one, included general things that all could relate too |
|
|
Term
| what did james randi demonstrate about how psychic surgery could be performed? |
|
Definition
| trick of the eye, fake blood, camera angle, ect |
|
|
Term
| anchors and their affects on DM |
|
Definition
| starting point, affects ppls judgements |
|
|
Term
| what does the northcraft and neale experiemnt indicate? |
|
Definition
| even professionals can be affected by anchors (realtor ex) |
|
|
Term
| attribution and fundamental attribution error |
|
Definition
att: explanations of our and other's behaviors
fund: overestimate the extent to which we attribute ppls beh to internal factors and underestimate situational factors |
|
|
Term
| common attributional biases |
|
Definition
self serving: more liekly to accept responsibility to success over failure
egocentric: accept more responsibility for group work then others would give you
positivity effect: tent to attribute pos beh to disposition and neg to situation |
|
|
Term
| diffusion of responsibility and Kitty Genovese |
|
Definition
in a gruop, ppl assume others will act so they dont
she was being murdered and no one helped bc assumed someone else would |
|
|
Term
| heuristics (availability and representative) |
|
Definition
avail: how easily something is brought to mind
rep: how something resembles something else |
|
|
Term
| function of mirror neurons and their function in emotion recognition |
|
Definition
neurons that fire when you do something OR when you watch someone else do that something
help identify emotions easily |
|
|
Term
| major parts of the cortex and their functions |
|
Definition
occipital lobe: visual
parietal lobe: somatosensory, some motor and visual
temporal: auditory, language rec
frontal: executive, planning, reasoning, organizing, ect |
|
|
Term
what are each responsible for:
hippocampus
amygdala
corpus callosum |
|
Definition
hipp: memory and spatial navigation
amyg:emotion processing
cor: band of fibers that communicates between brain hemispheres |
|
|
Term
| what is the 'binding problem' |
|
Definition
| different sensations are processed by different systems so how do they all come together to form one experience when there is no system to connect them |
|
|
Term
| basic assumptions of Kahnemans capacity model of attention |
|
Definition
arousal affects capacity (high/low reduce attention, med enhances)
-feedback affects arousal - where to apply attention
permanent cues affect attention (name being called, etc)
temporary goals affect attention |
|
|
Term
| automatic vs controlled processes |
|
Definition
auto: little attention, outside conciousness, fast and highly practiced
controlled: more attention needed, slower and less practiced |
|
|
Term
| change blindness and implication sof the study: |
|
Definition
| we retain very little info from one scene to the next |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
solving a prob the way you know how to even if there is a simpler way
water jug prob: given multiple problems to solve, the first few all the same way, the next ones a different easier way, but stay with old way |
|
|
Term
| explicit vs implicit memory: |
|
Definition
explicit: intent to retrieve- direct test
implicit: do not intend to retrieve but effects decision any way (indirect test) |
|
|
Term
| cognitive dissonance theory |
|
Definition
individuals seek consistency bt cognitions (beliefs, opinions etc)
if not, must change something |
|
|
Term
| how does autism effect eye gaze and activation of the fusiform gyrus |
|
Definition
autistic ppl dont look at eyes like others do, fusiform gyrus is activated by faces
they use same part of the brain as when looking at objects, harder to recognize emotions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| defensiveness, stonewalling, criticism, contempt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ability of our unconcious to find pattersn in situations/behaviors with very little info |
|
|
Term
| what predicts whether or not a dr will be sued by px |
|
Definition
| whether they like him or not |
|
|
Term
| why was the use of a screening in classical music tryouts helpful for women |
|
Definition
| weren't judged on anything other then voice, unable to make sanp (think slice) judgeemnts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the part of the brain that leaps to conclusions (iowa Exp) |
|
|
Term
| verbal over shadowing effect |
|
Definition
| easy to recognize a face but difficult to describe it, two different areas of the brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
benefits and harms or tx are reported in different units of measure
benefits: larger numbers
harms: smaller numbers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gottoman able to predict dovorce prob after watching a couple talk about anything for 15 min |
|
|
Term
| priming studies conducted by Bargh and Colleagues |
|
Definition
| either primed to be rude or polite, then had to wait on exp, rude interrupted polite did not |
|
|
Term
| how does damge to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex affect behavior? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does cook country medical center exp reveal about reasoning |
|
Definition
| ppl assume the more info you have the btter answer you can come to, but the extra info confuses the person |
|
|
Term
| what conditions lead to good Dm in fast paced situations |
|
Definition
| training, rules, rehearsal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| jam experts and students were asked to rate jams, similar ratings, but when asked to describe, different answers |
|
|
Term
| Goslings study on personality judgements and why less info is better |
|
Definition
| ppl went to dorm rooms of students they never meant and made better judgements than their close freinds |
|
|
Term
| non-transparent statistics |
|
Definition
relative risk, conditional probabilities,
survival rates and single events |
|
|
Term
| Gottman's marriage survival rule with respect to expresses emotion |
|
Definition
| pos emotions vs neg emotios should be 5 to 1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| unvoluntary flash of expression |
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