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tendency to move at constant
speed in a single direction |
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| chaos, uncertainty, disorder |
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• time second (s)
• length meter (m)
• mass kilogram (kg)
• amount of matter mole (mol)
• temperature kelvin (K) |
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the time required for a beam of cesium-133 atoms to resonate 9,192,631,770
cycles in a cesium resonator |
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the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of
one second. The agreed upon speed of light is 299,792,458 m/s |
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the mass of a certain platimun-irridium cylinder maintained under
prescribed conditions at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
Paris, France |
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the amount of substance containing as many elementary entities as there are
atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. These elementary entities must be specified,
and may be atoms, molecules, electrons, ions or other particles or specific
groups. |
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• velocity distance/time m/s
• acceleration velocity/time m/s2
• force mass x acceleration kg⋅m/s2 newton (N)
• work force x distance N⋅m joule (J)
• power work/time J/s watt (W)
• pressure force/area N/m2 pascal (Pa) |
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| In the English system of units (blank) is a primary quantity |
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force; The standard pound-force is the force with which 1 pound-mass (lbm) is attracted to the
earth when the standard pound-mass is suspended in the earth’s gravitational field at a position
where the acceleration due to gravity is 32.1740 ft/s2. |
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| law of gravitational attraction |
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| kG, the universal gravitational constant |
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a quantity of matter or a region of space enclosing a device or a
combination of devices containing a quantity of matter that is selected for study. The mass or
region outside the system is called the surroundings or the environment. The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system from its environment is called the boundary or control surface,
which is of zero thickness (and consequently, has no mass). A system is either closed or open. |
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No mass crosses the boundary of a closed system. Energy can
be transferred across the system boundary, which may be fixed or movable.
ex. The mass
contained within a piston-cylinder device has both fixed and movable boundaries. |
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control volume
Mass as well as energy can cross the boundary of an open system. The boundary can be fixed or movable and can be either real or imaginary. |
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A thermodynamic system that has no mass or energy crossing its boundaries (i.e., a system that
does not communicate with its surroundings) An isolated system
consists of a fixed amount of mass and contains the same amount of energy at all times. |
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Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some of the familiar thermodynamic
properties of a control mass include its mass (M), volume (V), temperature (T), pressure (P),
and density (ρ). The total energy (E) of a control mass is also a property. |
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mass
length
volume
entropy
enthalpy
energy
electrical resistance
texture
stiffness
particle number
concentration |
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temperature
chemical potential
density
viscosity
velocity
electrical resistivity
spectral absorption maxima (in solution)
specific energy
specific heat capacity
lustre
hardness
melting point and boiling point
pressure
buoyancy[citation needed]
ductility
elasticity
malleability
magnetism
odor
state |
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| Extensive properties per unit mass |
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At any instant of time, a system is described by the values of its properties. The condition of a
system as described by its properties |
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Equilibrium states have no
unbalanced potentials. The temperature, pressure and composition are uniform within the
system and there is no mass transport between any phases within the system. An equilibrium
state is a state in thermal, mechanical, chemical, and phase equilibrium. |
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When the state of a system is changed (i.e., when one or more of the properties of a system
changes), the system is said to have undergone a process |
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The process path is defined by the states that the system passes through in transition from some
initial state to some final state. If the initial and final states are the same, the system is said to
have gone through a cycle. |
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| A process that occurs at constant pressure |
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A process that occurs at
constant temperature |
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| a process that occurs at constant volume |
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| Production(X) = Outflow(X) – Inflow(X) + Accumulation(X) |
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| Production Bookkeeping (rate basis) |
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| Rate of production(X) = Rate of outflow(X) – Rate of inflow(X) + Rate of accumulation(X) |
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| When the rate of accumulation is zero (dX/dt = 0) |
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If a device operates for long periods of time at the same conditions and the inlet and outlet flow
rates are fixed |
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Production(X) = 0 and Rate of
production(X) = 0
Mass, momentum and energy
We cannot prove that they are
conserved quantities. We have not been able to identify any system, however, to show that
these quantities are not conserved. |
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If a force is applied to an object and the object changes position, then work has been done
on the object. If the object does not move, no work was done as a result of the applied
force.
The total amount of work done depends upon how the force was applied over the
displacement (i.e., the total work depends upon how the force varies with position). We say
that work depends on the process path as well as on the end points. Work is a path
function. |
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the gravitational force applied to a body. The weight of
an object on earth is the force exerted by the planet Earth on the
object. At sea level, g = 9.807 m/s2. |
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Potential energy is
the energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field. |
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| kinetic energy and potential energy |
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kinetic energies of the molecules (translation, rotational,
vibrational energies); nuclear energy (electron translation,
electron spin, nuclear spin, nuclear binding forces);
intermolecular binding forces (latent energies); bond
energy; magnetic and electric dipole moments, etc. |
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| U ≡ internal energy = sum of microscopic energy forms |
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The total energy (E) of a system is the sum of its microscopic and macroscopic energy forms
E=U+KE+PE |
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Matter can be treated as having a property called energy, which is an extensive,
conserved scalar measuring its ability to cause change. Work is energy transfer, i.e.,work is energy being transferred. |
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The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or
say, a system and its environment) by virtue of a temperature difference. The transfer occurs
on the molecular level.
The direction of heat transfer is always from the hotter entity to the cooler. Once temperature
equality is established, the heat transfer stops. |
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| three mechanisms for heat transport |
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| Conduction, radiation and convection |
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| the transfer of energy by molecular collisions |
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transfer of energy via
electromagnetic waves |
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any process in which no energy transfer as heat occurs
across the boundary of the system. surface |
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the work that a control mass (the system) transfers to its boundary as it expands. The force exerted on the boundary is the pressure times the area. If the control mass expands a differential amount dV, then the incremental amount of work done by the control mass on its boundary during this volume change is
δWexpansion = PdV, dV > 0
The work is transferred across the system boundary to the surroundings. |
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The work transferred to a control mass (the system) that is being compressed
If the control mass is compressed and the volume decreases a differential
amount dV, then the incremental amount of work done on the control mass by its boundary
during this compression process is
δWcompression = - PdV, dV < 0 |
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Definition
Electrons can cross the system boundary thereby transferring work to the control mass. The
electrical work can be expressed on a rate basis as
Welectric =VI
W is the electric power (in watt), V is the voltage |
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energy transfer due to a rotating shaft. Shaft
work is proportional to the applied torque T and the number
of rotations n of the shaft:
Wshaft = F s=2πnT |
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| There are as many independent thermodynamic properties as there are independent ways of changing the energy of the control mass of interest. |
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| simple compressible substances |
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substances for which the only work mode is
through volume change, via compression and expansion processes |
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“How many thermodynamic properties must be specified in order to
completely fix the thermodynamic state of a control mass?” |
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Definition
Since the energy of a simple compressible substance can be changed only via the transfer of
energy as heat and the transfer of energy as PdV work (work due to volume change),
specification of any two independent intensive thermodynamic properties completely fixes the
state. |
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a form of a substance that has a distinct
molecular structure that is homogenous throughout and separated from other phases by
identifiable boundaries. |
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| The amount of energy needed to cause a phase change |
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The amount of
energy absorbed by a solid as it melts (changes from solid to liquid) |
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| latent heat of vaporization |
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Definition
| The amount of energy absorbed by a liquid as it evaporates (changes from liquid to gas) |
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| latent heat of sublimation |
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Definition
| The amount of energy absorbed by a solid as it sublimes (changes from solid to gas) |
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a property that only has meaning for the two-phase mixture, is used to give the relative
amounts of vapor and liquid. |
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k = cp/cv
- for monatomic gases, k ≈ 1.667 for all temperatures
- for diatomic gases k ~ 1.4 for temperature near 298 K |
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a liquid for which at fixed temperature, specific volume changes
with pressure are negligible. For an ideal liquid, specific volume varies solely with
temperature.
k = cp/cv = 1 |
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| coefficient of performance |
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Definition
| COP=desired quantity / required quantity |
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the work required to push a fluid across a boundary of a control volume.
necessary for maintaining a continuous flow through a control volume. |
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