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| study of energy and its transformations |
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| branch of thermodynamics that deals with heat in chemical and physical changes |
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| part of the universe that is being focused on |
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| everything (in reason) that is not the system |
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| sum of all kinetic and potential energy of each particle in a system |
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Efinal - Einitial
Eproducts - Ereactants
q + w |
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| a change in energy of the system must be accompanied by |
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| an equal and opposite change in energy of the surroundings |
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| releasing energy in a transfer to the surroundings |
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| Efinal < Einitial so DE<0 |
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| absorbing energy in a transfer from the surroundings |
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| Efinal > Einitial so DE>0 |
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| energy transferred as a result of the difference in temperature between the system and the surroundings |
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| energy transferred when an object is moved by a force |
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| energy transferred into the system is |
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positive because the system ends up with more energy
DE is positive |
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| energy transferred out of the system is |
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negative because the system ends up with less energy
DE is negative |
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| the law of energy conservation |
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the 1st law of thermodynamics
the total energy of the universe is constant |
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| quantity of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 *C |
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| the internal energy of a system is called a |
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| a state function is dependent on |
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| the current state of the system, not on the path the system takes to reach that state |
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| the difference between the final and initial states, not on how the change takes place |
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| pressure-volume work (PV work) |
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| mechanical work done when the volume of the system changes in the presence of eternal pressure |
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| internal energy plus the product of the pressure and volume |
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| the change in enthalpy equals |
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| the heat absorbed or released at constant pressure |
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| releases heat and results in the decrease in the enthalpy of the system |
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| absorbs heat and results in an increase in the enthalpy of the system |
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| quantity of heat required to change its temperature by 1 K |
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| quantity of heat required to change its temperature of 1 gram of the object by 1 K |
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| quantity of heat required to change its temperature of 1 mole of the substance by 1 K |
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| device that measures the heat transferred at constant pressure |
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| device measures the heat released at constant volume |
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| balanced equation that includes the enthalpy change of the reaction |
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| the enthalpy change of an overall process is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its individual steps |
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| at 1 atm and ideal behavior |
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| standard state for a for a substance in aqueous solution |
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| standard state for a for a pure substance (element or compound) |
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| the most stable form of the substance at 1 atm and 25*C (298K) |
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| 1 mol of a compound forms from its elements |
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| standard enthalpy of formation |
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| enthalpy change for the formation equation when all the substances are in their standard states |
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| the standard enthalpy of reaction is |
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| the sum of the standard enthalpy of formation of the products minus the sum of the standard enthalpy of formation of the reactants |
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| petroleum, coal and natural gas |
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| The energy associated with motion |
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| Motion of atoms, molecules or ions at the submicroscopic level |
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| Motion of a macroscopic objects like a moving basketball or airplane |
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| Movement of electrons through a conductor |
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| The compression and expansion of molecules in the transmission of sound. |
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| The energy associated with an objects position |
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Acoustic Energy
Electrical Energy
Mechanical Energy
Thermal Energy |
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| Energy possessed by a ball held above the floor or by water at the top of a water fall |
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| Energy stored in fuels or in chemical bonds |
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| The energy associated with the separation of two electrical charges. |
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| Types of Potential energy |
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Gravitational Energy
Chemical Energy
Electrostatic Energy |
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| Law of Conservation of Energy |
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Definition
| Energy can neither be created nor destroyed |
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| Energy transferred as work to or from the system |
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The formal name for the quantity E.
Internal energy in a chemical system is the sum of PE and KE of the atoms, molecules or ions |
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| equal to the amount of energy transferred as heat at a constant pressure. |
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| energy is transferred as heat from the system to the surroundings. Exothermic. |
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| energy is transferred as heat from the surroundings to the system. Endothermic. |
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| The temperature of an object is a measure of |
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| its ability to transfer energy as heat. |
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| The higher the temperature, |
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| the greater the thermal energy of the materials atoms, ions or molecules |
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| When two objects which were once at different temperatures, reach the same temperature |
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| Energy transfer as heat will occur spontanesosly from _____ to ______ |
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| the higher temperature material to the lower temperature material |
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| The method by which the energy evolved or required as heat in a chemical of physical process is measured. |
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| conversion of a substance from one physical state to another, i.e. from a liquid to a solid or from a liquid to a gas |
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| The energy transferred as heat that is required to convert a substance from a solid to a liquid |
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| The energy transferred as heat that is required to convert a substance from a liquid to a gas |
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| The superscript o indicates that |
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Definition
| the reaction has been run at standard conditions. |
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| Enthalpy changes are specific to |
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Definition
| the reaction being carried out. State of the product produced, is important as are the amounts of products and reactants. |
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| The enthalpy change depends on the |
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Definition
| number of moles of reaction. That is how many times the as written reaction is carried out. |
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| Electromagnetic Radiation |
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Definition
| Characterized by wavelength and frequency and includes light, microwaves, television and radio signals x-rays, and other forms of radiation |
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| ambda, , the distance between successive crest or high points of a wave. The distance is usually measured in m or nm |
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| nu, , refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in some unit of time, usually per second. The unit of frequency, written as s-1 or 1/s is called hertz. |
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| Clight = 2.99792458 x 108m/s |
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| Magnetic vector moves _______ to that of the electric vector |
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| where the wave changes from positive to negative |
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| that the EMR emitted was caused by vibrating atoms called oscilators. And if each oscilator had a frequency, and the emitted radiation had a certain energy, the following eqn could be written. |
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| h = 6.6260693 x 10 -34 J*s |
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| electrons are ejected when light strikes the surface of a metal. |
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| The energy of each photon is proportional to |
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| the frequency of the radiation as defined by Planck’s eqn. |
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| The spectrum obtained from passing a beam of light from the excited sample through a prism. |
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| 1/ lambda = R (1/22 - 1/n22), where n is an integer and > 2 |
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| The 4 visible lines in the spectrum of hydrogen |
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| Bohr derived an equation for |
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| the energy possessed by the single electron in the nth orbit of the H atom |
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| energies of the allowed orbits in the H atom |
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| Proposed that matter which was normally considered a particle, could also exhibit wave properties. Previously for light in the photoelectric effect. |
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| That both the energy and the location for the electron in the hydrogen atom can be described accurately |
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| Determined that for an object such as an electron in an atom, it is impossible to determine accurately both its position and its energy. |
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| Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: |
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| any attempt to determine accurately either the location or the energy will leave the other uncertain. |
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| Developed quantum mechanics or wave mechanics. Uses mathematical eqns of wave motion to generate wave functions which are used to describe a electrons in the atom. |
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| the principle quantum number |
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| the primary factor in determining the energy and size of an orbital. |
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| For any given atom, the greater the value of n, |
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Definition
| the greater the size of the orbital. |
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| Orbitals are grouped into _____ . |
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Definition
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| each subshell is characterized by a different value of ____ |
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| I defines the characteristic |
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| orientation in space of the orbital within a subshell. |
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| Elements or compounds that have unpaired spins and are attracted to magnets. |
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| Substances in which all the electrons are paired (with 2 electrons in each pair, having opposite spins) experience a slight repulsion when subjected to a magnet |
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| electron spin quantum number |
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| the number of cycles a wave undergoes per second |
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| electromagnetic radiation consists of |
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| energy propagated by electric and magnetic fields that increase and decrease in intensity as they move through space |
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| visible light, x rays and microwaves are examples of |
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| electromagnetic radiation |
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the distance between any point on a wave and the corresponding point on the next crest of the wave
the distance the wave travels in one cycle |
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| the height of the crest of wave or the depth of the trough |
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| the amplitude of a wave is related to the |
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| intensity of the radiation |
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| types of waves by increasing wavelegth |
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Definition
gamma
x-ray
ultraviolet
visible
infrared
microwave
radio |
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| types of waves by increasing frequency |
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Definition
radio
microwave
infrared
visible
ultraviolet
x-ray
gamma |
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| 400 nm (violet) to 750nm (red) |
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| when a light wave passes through on medium and into another and the speed of the wave changes, making the wave bend in shape |
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| white light separates into its component colors when it passes through a prism |
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| when a wave strikes against an object and it bends around it |
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| when a solid object is heated to about 1000 K and it begins to emit visible light |
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| the quantum theory was created by |
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| the photon theory was created by |
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| wavelength and frequency have a _____ relationship |
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| a series of fine lines at specific frequencies separated by black spaces |
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| Rydberg equation predicts |
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| the position and wavelength of any line in a given series |
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| (1 / wavelength) = R ((1 / n1^2) - (1 / n2^2)) |
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| the Hydrogen model atom was created by |
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| Postulates of Bohr's Hydrogen Atom Model |
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Definition
the H atom has only certain energy levels
the atom does not radiate energy while in one of its stationary states
the atoms changes to another stationary state only when absorbing or emitting a photon |
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| when the electron is in the first orbit, is closest to the nucleus and the H atom is in the lowest (first) energy level |
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| if the electron is in any orbit other than the first orbit |
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| an atomic spectrum (is/ is not) continuous because |
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Definition
| is not; the atom's energy is not continuous, but rather has only certain states |
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| an atom changes energy by |
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| absorbing or emitting a photon of specific energy |
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| DE = Efinal - Einitial = -2.18x10^-18 J ((1/ nfinal^2) - (1/ninitial^2)) |
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| emission spectrum is produced when |
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Definition
| atoms in an excited state emit photons characteristics of an element as they return to lower energy states |
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| absorption spectrum is produced when |
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| atoms absorb photons of certain wavelengths and become excited from lower to higher energy states |
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| a spectrometer is used to measure |
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| the concentration of a substance in a solution |
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| the amount of light of a given wavelength absorbed by a substance |
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| absorbance is proportional to |
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| electrons move in a fixed orbit |
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| mathematical description of the electron's matter-wave in three dimensions |
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| the principle quantum number |
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| the principle quantum number indicates |
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| the relative size of the orbital and therefore the relative distance from the nucleus |
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| angular momentum quantum number |
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| angular momentum quantum number indicates |
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| the relative shape of the orbital |
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| the magnetic quantum number |
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| the magnetic quantum number describes the |
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| 3D orientation of the orbital |
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| the atoms levels are given by the |
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| the atoms levels are divided into sublevels that are given by the |
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| No more than ____ electrons can be in an atomic orbital. |
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| Pauli Exclusion Principle |
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| No two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers. |
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| The procedure in which electrons are assigned to orbitals. |
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| Atomic Size is related to |
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| the distance between atoms in a sample of the element |
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| For the main group elements, atomic size generally |
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Definition
Increases going down a group due to the larger number of outer (valence electrons)
Decreases going across a period due to the larger effective nuclear charge |
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| The energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase. |
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| Ionization energies general |
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Definition
general increase across a period due to the increase in effective nuclear charge
decrease down a group due to the increase in size |
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