Semantic Range

Words that will mean different things depending on the context.

Context

The overall thought and matrix of meaning within which a word of thought is expressed.

Vagueness

Depending on the needs of the situation, less precise uses of a word can be more or less appropriate. For example, in the novel Watership Down, which is about the adventures of a group of almost-human rabbits, the rabbits intelligence will only allow them to count to three. Anything more than three is called “lots”. So, when a rabbit asks another rabbit how many carrots it took to fill him up, “lots” obviously indicated more than three, but not much more, whereas when the cats were coming to attack and the scout was reporting how many there were, “lots” was somewhat less helpful in helping them determine if they wanted to fight or flee.

Ambiguity

Where meaning is unclear

Lexical Ambiguity

Where a sentence is ambiguous because a work in it has multiple meanings. “Dollars are very important.” Is this because they are better than other dollars? Because we need them to pay for things? Or perhaps because they stabilize other currency on the world market?

Syntactic Ambiguity

Refers to ‘syntax’, which is the way words and symbols are put together. “Bill and Freddy or Jimmy will score a touchdown.”

Contextual Ambiguity

This is where we need context to play a role in order for meaning to be clear, but the statement structure does not help us in achieving this goal. “He wants her to go with him.”

“John is short”, what is my reference? Surely he is taller than a mouse, and equally certainly he is shorter than a giraffe. So without a better context, such as knowing the identity of the speaker, this statement lacks a great deal of specificity.

Ambiguity in Argument

Occurs when words appear in the premises and conclusions but do not really connect because the words have different meanings in different places. For example:

Don: The hurricane is coming, we should all take precautions.

Sam: I have taken precautions. In fact, I change the oil on my car this morning.

Connotation and Suggestion

These terms refer to the emotional response that we desire in readers by using certain words or phrases.

Connotation

Euphemism

Where a word or phrase is used in place of a more precise word or phrase that carries a set of associations that the speaker wishes to avoid.

For example: civilian deaths have been called “collateral damage”, or “attrition of effectiveness” and “degradation of our personnel aggregate” instead of “casualties”.

Connotation in Place of Content

Where a phrase is meant to convey an emotion, with or without content.

For example: “Budweiser, the great American Lager.” Budweiser is now owned by a Belgian company.

Overblown Jargon

Basically being overly abstract in concept description. Often a problem in academic writing. 

Loaded Verbs

Where a charged verb is used instead of a more

neutral expression.  

For example: Refute vs argue against.  Know vs think or feel.  Fix vs change. Prove vs assert

Tone

You need to pick a writing style that balances the loading level of words so that your audience is informed properly, but not offended or put off.

For example: “I believe that our recent history has shown that capitalism has instances of centralized monetary power, so we should not believe that the middle class will always benefit from a capitalist system” vs “Capitalism favors the rich and privileged at the expense of the middle class.”

Gender Bias

Unfortunately the English language does not have a significant neutral pronoun. Generally we have always used the masculine to refer to a group that contains even one male, but many claim this is misleading, and that if we choose a masculine or feminine term it automatically biases our understanding.

Reasoning Lecture

Analyzing arguments and Should arguments

There are three primary kinds of ambiguity:

Lexical Ambiguity

Syntactic Ambiguity

Contextual Ambiguity

Steps to analyzing an argument:

1. Identify the conclusion

2. Identify the premises that are stated in support of the conclusion.

3. If the argument is not yet valid, try to identify reasonable unstated premises that will connect the premise to the conclusions in a valid way.

4. Once you have a valid argument, you can ask whether the identified premises are really true. If not, consider modifications that would make the premises more acceptable while preserving validity.

Key words for argumentation

A. Definite words: and, or, every, some, if

B. Nuanced words: can, should

3 Things to Ask of a Should Argument

1. Will the suggested action achieve the goal?

2. Is it the best way to achieve the goal?

3. Is the goal valuable enough to justify the action required to attain it?

There are generally four steps to a properly formulated should proposal:

1. The (SC) Success Condition: Doing x will achieve y

2. The (OMC) Optimal Means Condition: Doing x is the best way to achieve y

3. The (EJM) Ends Justify the Means Condition: All things considered, doing x and achieving y is better than not achieving y.

4. Therefore x should be done