inescapable compromises between traits

ex: quantity versus quality

1. connective

2. nervous

3. muscular

5. epithelial

1. loose

2. dense

3. supporting

4. fluid

• Adipose tissure
• contains fat droplets
• microfribrils
• padding under skin
• loose matric of fluid

found in tendons, ligaments, connects bones, muscles, and organs.

contains tough collagen fibers

• supporting connective tissue
• hard extracellular matrix
• bone cells
• structural support for body
• protects nervous system

• supporting connective tissue
• elastic extracellular tissue
• cartilage cells
• structural support
• protection

fluid connective tissue

contains white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

all contained in a jelly-like extracellula matrix called the plasma

Nervous tissue

axon

dendrites - connect to other neurons

transmits electrical signals to other cells

• are tissues that cover the outside of the body, line the surfaces of organs, and form glands
• provide protection and regulate the transfer of heat between the interior and exterior of structures, as well as the transfer of water, nutrients, and other substances.

basolateral

apical

• rate at which an animal consumes oxygen at a resting state, on an empty stomach at normal temperatures
• measured in mL of O2 consumed per gram of body mass per hour
• unique to mammals, birds and a few reptiles
  

flattened sheet-like structures of fish gills

form of flattening to increase surfce area

form of folding to increase surface area

found in small intestines of mammals

(microvilli are projections off the villi which further increase surface area)

form of branching to increase surface area

network of blood vessels

maintenance of relatively constant internal environment regardless of the outside conditions

chemical and physical states are kept within a tolerable range

conformation

regulation

organism that conforms to external temperature

ex: fish match their surrounding water temperature

organism maintains a certain body temperature despite outside conditions

only a tolerable range of temperature that can be maintained

ex: humans, most mammals

they regulate the material that can pass through membranes/surface

regulates internal processing

sensor

integrator

effector

senses an aspect from the internal or external environment

ex: pH, temperature, growth hormone

part of nervous system that evaluates the incoming stimulus and decides if a response is necessary to reach homeostasis

ex: neurosecratory cell in the pituitary gland

structure that helps restore the desired internal conditions

ex: organs can be affectors (skin, muscle, liver)

conduction

convection

evaporation

radiation

direct transfer of heat between two physical bodies that are in contact with one another

ex: turtle and rock

special case of conduction - heat is exchanged between a solid and a liquid or a gas (rather than 2 solids)

ex: wind

phase exchange when liquid water becomes gas

ex: sweat evaporating in the heat

because their basal metabolic rate is so high that they produce heat (high rate of chemical reactions)

also these animals have insulating like fat, feathers, fur

MBR are much higher so they (including humans) can be more active

do not hibernate, must feed ourselves more often and all through winter

can survive on much less food

do not oxidize food to produce heat, so more energy goes into reproducing

skin - sensor

hypothalamus - integrator

metabolic or behavoiral changes - effectors

speed the refolding of proteins if the organism is every heated ot the point where their proteins get dentaured

RECOVERY

• are antagonistic - one set of responses increases a parameter, another set decreases them
• redundant
• constant input from sensor and integrator

endothermic animals (ex: whale tongue)

arteries and veins lie besides each other connecte by capillaries

capillaries take warm blood from arteries and transport it to the veins, by the time it reaches the veins it has cooled, and the colled blood passes the warm blood in the arteries and warms up again

1. ingestion

2. digestion

3. absorption

4. excretion

organisms that cannot produce their own food like plants can

ex: animals

essential in minute amounts

some act as coenzymes in critical reactions

organic compounds

inorganic ions

influence osmotic balance

required for normal membrane function

sodium, chlorine, magnesium

water soluble

fat soluble

get flushed out of the body

not stored

not able to pass thru plasma membrane

ex: vitamin Bs and C

are not regularly flushed out of the body

stored in fat

hydrophobic so they move through plasma membrane

ex: vitamin E and D

found in dairy, legumes, green vegetables

bone and tooth formation, nerve signaling, muscle response

lacking = loss of bone mass, slow growth

found in iodized salt, algae, seafood

component of thyroid

lacking = enlarged thyroid

found in meat, eggs, whole grains, green leafy veggies, and legumes

enzyme cofactor, production of hemoglobin

lacking = anemia, weakness

found in meat, dairy, grains

bone and tooth formation, ATP synthesis and nucleotides

lacking = loss of bone, weakness

found in any protein

amino acid synthesis

lacking = swollen tissue, degeneration of liver, mental retardation

absorption  - nutrients/water moving from digestive tract to adjacent cells

assimilation - how these nutrients/water gets to the rest of the body/cells

alimentary canal

gastrointestinal (GI) tract

begins at mouth and ends at anus

food is taken in the same place where it is expelled

1 opening

mouth opend into the gastrovascular cavity where food is digested

2 openings - mouth and anus

animals can feed on large pieces of food

chemical reactions digest food

food can continually be ingested and digested

eat more often

begins in the mouth with the ripping and tearing of food by the teeth

begins in the mouth - salivary amylase begins to break down the carbs

pancreatic amylase continues to digest carbs in the small intestines

facilitated transport through epithelium of s. intestines and into the blood stream

begins in the stomach - pepsin and HCL - turns them into polypeptides

small intestines turn polypeptides into short peptide amino acids

facilitated diffusion and cotransport of amino acids thru the small intestines tissue into blood stream

starts in mouth with lingual lipase

small intestines - bile salts and pancreatic lipase turn lipids into fatty acids

facilitated dissusion thru the epithelial cell of the small intestines.

exocytosis into blood stream thru lymph vessels

produced by salivary glands

contains water and glycoproteins

mucin+water = mucus

reflex

in esophagus and small intestines

wave of muscle contractions

BIRDS
area where food can be stored and sometimes processed

allow birds to eat alot in a short time and then go somewhere safe to digest

some have bacteria that digest cellulose in this area

H2CO3

high concentrations in parietal cells

makes carbonic acid from CO2 and H2O

carbonic acid = bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and a proton (H+)

actively pumped into stomach

Take Cl- from blood into lume

bicarbonate (HC3O-) into blood, H+ ion goes into lumen

whole in epithelial lining (basement membrane and tissue)

caused by Helicobacter pylori

6 meters long

partially digested food goes here

absorption of water and nutrients takes place

pancreatic and liver secreation meet in duodenum for digestion of food

high surface are - villi and microvilli

enzyme in the small intestines that digests polypeptides into monomers

synthesized in inactive forms in the pancrease

transferred into small intestines by the pancreas duct

activated by enterokinase

activated by enterokinase by phosphorylation

now called trypsin

trypsin activates 3 other enzymes

cleaves specific peptide bonds

first hormone discovered

produced in the pancreas

induces flow of bicarbonate ions from pancreas to small intestines

bicarbonate neutralizes the acid from stomach

produced in small intestines

stimulates secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreas and liver that digest lipids

produced by pancreas

digest RNA and DNA in food

highly selective - plasma membrane and microvilli are responsible for bringing specific nutrients into the cell.

active process, requires ATP to bring nutrients into epithelium against concentration gradient

abnormally high glucose levels

caused by a problem with insulin (hormone)

hormone produced by the pancreas when blood sugar drops too low

gluconeogenesis produces glucose and raises levels in blood

hormone secreted by pancreas when blood sugar levels are too high

does not work in diabetics

body mass index

weight (Kg) / height (m) squared

1. large surface area

2. steep difference in partial pressure

1. ventilation

2. gas exchange

3. circulation

4. cellular respiration

air/water moves thru a specialized gas-exchange organs

ex: gills or lungs

composed of organs responsible for gas exchange

does ventilation and gas exchange

some animals use skin for breathing

insects use trachaea

lungs in tetrapods

gills for mollusks, fish and anthropods

responsible for moving O2 and CO2 and other nutrients/water around body.

transport is propelled by heart thru vessels

pressure of a specific gas in a mixture of gases

multiple the fractional composition of specific gas by the total pressure of gases exerted

1. large surface area

2. respiratory system is extremely thin

3. partial pressure gradient across a surface is large

rate of dissuion = KxAx(P2-P1)/D

k- diffusion constant

A- surface area

P2-P1 - difference in partial pressure of the 2 gases on either side of the barrier

D - distance/thickness of the barrier to diffuse

scar tissue is thicker than normal tissue therefore it is harder to diffuse across

ex: emphazyma