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| a condition that must be present for the effect to follow |
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| condition that if present, guarantees the effect in question |
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A relationship between two variables such that:
* changes in one are associated with changes in the other * attributes of one are associated with attributes of the other. |
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- cause of spurious correlation between other variables.
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| part of the causal chain. The IV causes the intervening variable, which in turn causes the DV |
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A process of observation, to be carried out in a situation expressly brought about for that purpose.
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- Taking action.
- Observing the consequences of that action.
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| randomly to an experimental group that receives a treatment or other manipulation of the independent variable and a comparison group that does not receive the treatment or receives some other manipulation. |
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| A criterion fro establishing a nonothetic causal relationship b/t 2 varibles: Variation in 1 variable is related to variation in another variable |
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| A group of subjects to whom an experimental stimulus is administered. |
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| A group of subjects to whom no experimental stimulus is administered and who resemble the experimental group in all other respects |
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| An experimental design in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control. |
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| Randomization (random assignment) |
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* A technique for assigning experimental subjects to experimental and control groups randomly.
* random assignment to experimental and comparison groups not the same as random sampling of individuals from some larger population
* What random assignment does—create two (or more) equivalent groups—is useful for ensuring internal validity, not generalizability |
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* In connection with experiments, procedure whereby pairs of subjects are matched on basis of their similarities on one or more variables, and one member of pair is assigned to experimental group and other to control group
* Exs.: gender, race, age, scores on pre-test, etc. |
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- Nonequivalent control group designs
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experimental and comparison groups are designated before treatment occurs; not created by random assignment
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| employ pretest and posttest but no comparison group; subjects exposed to treatment serve, at an earlier time, as their own controls |
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| Ex post facto control group designs |
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| use nonrandomized control groups designated after the fact |
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| heoretical generalizability |
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| generalizing theory to a variety of settings |
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| inferring observations based on sample apply to rest of population |
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refers to possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may not accurately reflect what has gone on in experiment itself; non-random, systematic error
* The threat to IV results when relationship between two variables arises from effect of some third variable |
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- Assertion about concrete and limited state of affairs
- Usually having to do with one or very few cases
- Established through informants or experts
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- Assertion about distribution of something or joint distribution of several things
- Has to do with a number of cases
- Established through a survey or census
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| Respondent is asked to provide his or her own answer to the question. |
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| Respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. |
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| divert respondents to different questions or direct them to skip questions, contingent on responses to prior question |
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| tendency of respondents to select answers on basis of perceived social standards (“normal” or socially desirable answers) aka “agreement bias,” “social desirability bias,” or “acquiescence effect” |
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| tendency of respondents to fall into pattern of responding, disregarding variations in content of questions |
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| respondents who choose a substantive answer even when they really don’t know |
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| people who see themselves as being neutral, may skew results if forced to choose between opposites (offer “no opinion” option) |
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- A collection of data consisting of the entire population.
- All cases or all units of the relevant set.
- Unit: any individual member of the population.
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| the whole collection of things under consideration |
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| a portion of the population selected for analysis |
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| a summary measure computed to describe a characteristic of the population |
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a summary measure computed to describe a characteristic of the sample
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| : individual members of population whose characteristics are to be measured (aka unit) |
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| : a list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population |
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| A sample that “looks like” the population from which it was selected in all respects that are potentially relevant to the study. |
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| probability sampling methods |
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| Sampling methods that allow us to know in advance how likely it is that any element of a population will be selected |
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| nonprobability sampling methods. |
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| Sampling methods that do not let us know in advance the likelihood of selecting each element |
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* Every individual or item from the sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected
* Selection may be with replacement or without replacement |
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Systematic Random Samples |
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- Decide on Sample Size: n
- Sample the list by selecting the first case randomly and taking every “nth” case until end of list is reached
- Same as what is essentially a simple random sample unless sequence of elements is affected by periodicity—sequence varies in some regular, periodic pattern
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| number of cases between one sampled case and another in systematic random sample |
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| aggregates or groups of individuals are first sampled; then samples of individuals are selected from each cluster * Population is divided into groups, usually geographic or organizational •Some of the groups are randomly chosen |
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| Stratified Random Samples |
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* Population divided into 2 or more groups according to some common characteristic (strata or categories such as gender or region)
* Simple random sample selected from each group
* The two or more samples are combined into one |
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| coverage probability (the probability that the parameter actually will fall within the range |
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| Elements selected b/c they’re available or easy to find. Aka haphazard, accidental, or convenience sample |
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intended to overcome
most obvious flaw of availability sampling; quotas are set to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population. |
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* Subjects selected for a specific purpose in mind that is tied to purposes of research
* Small samples < 30, not large enough for power of probability sampling
* Nature of research requires small sample
* Choose subjects with appropriate variability in what you are studying
* Hard-to-get populations that cannot be found through screening general population |
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| A naturally occuring, mixed aggregate of elements of the population |
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| Research in which info is collected from a sample of individuals through their responses to a set of standardized questions |
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