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described and named species
father of taxonomy
grouped species together in taxonomic order |
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| suggested that earth is older than 6000 yrs- GRADUALISM |
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| many species produce more offspring than can survive |
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said acquired traits cannot be inhereted, species change cause of the environment,
species are related |
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| father of paleontology: described many fossil species, showed that extinction had occured |
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| geological forces had gradually shaped the earth and continue to do so |
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| Jon Miller's 3 factors about why US doesnt accept evolution |
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• a poor understanding of genetics
• a literal interpretation of the Bible
• a conservative political ideology |
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| a change in allele frequencies within populations |
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| independently arrived at the idea of ‘descent by modification’ and natural selection and hastened Darwin’s publication of the “Origin of Species” |
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| discovered rules of inheritance, but his contributions were ignored for 30 years |
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| considered species to be changeable |
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| humans breed species to have certain characteristics that the breeder finds useful |
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| “Descent with Modification” |
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| Life on Earth had a single origin and all the diverse organisms around today are descendants, modified by evolutionary processes, of this common ancestor |
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| a process by which individuals with certain heritable traits produce more offspring than individuals lacking those traits; alleles associated with “favored” traits increase in frequency from one generation to the next |
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| proof that all organisms are decended from a common ancestor |
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Definition
All organisms copy DNA using DNA polymerase.
All organisms use ribosomes to make proteins.
Almost all organisms use the same 64 mRNA codons to specify the same amino acids. |
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| refers to similarity of morphological traits, such as the same general limb structure in vertebrates. Darwin interpreted structural homologies as a product of descent with modification. |
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| similarity in embryo morphology and/or pattern of tissue differentiation. For example, all vertebrates have gill pouches and tails early in embryonic development. |
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| similarities in the DNA sequences of genes from different species. |
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| originally close to 800 birds. Of these birds, less than 100 survived during a drought. These 100 then measured to have larger beaks than the avg beaks before. |
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| natural selection depends upon the abiotic & biotic environment |
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| Timescale for natural selection |
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| fast for viruses and bacteria. Slower for eukaryotes |
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• Allele and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant from generation to generation provided that only Mendelian segregation, recombination and random fertilization of gametes are taking place.
• Populations that are NOT at Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium must have one or more evolutionary processes (selection, genetic drift, gene flow or mutation) at work |
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| How most ecosystems on earth derive their energy |
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• Most ecosystems on earth derive their energy from photoautotrophs that capture CO2 and use it to make carbohydrates during photosynthesis
• Photosynthetic organisms form the base of food chains upon which herbivores and predators rely |
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| in which the energy is greatest at the lowest trophic level (=producer) and decreases with each higher trophic level |
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| Why most food chains are so short |
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• Energy-transfer hypothesis *
• Stability hypothesis
• Environmental complexity hypothesis |
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| Marine food chains main producer |
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| Marine food chains differ from terrestrial food chains because main producers are phytoplankton . |
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Kingfishers have a positive impact on Daphnia by reducing stickleback populations
•Kingfishers are indirect mutualists of Daphnia! |
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| In Yellowstone, Wolves prey elk. Elk prey aspen and willow trees. Wolves have positive indirect effect on aspen/willow trees |
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Original: Large Fish-Plankivorous-Zooplankton-Phytoplankton
Overfish- no large fish. effects change |
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Consider eutrophication in lake ecosystems
The excessive addition of nutrients (N, P) into lakes can result in algal blooms, demonstrating that algal biomass is also influenced by resource availability from the “bottom-up” |
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| consuming resources at more than one trophic level |
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| Pardosa preys on Tyhttus and Prokelisia. Tythuss preys on Projelisia which preys on Spartina. |
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| • foundation species have a dramatic impact on their communities because they are extremely abundant (high biomass) • they provide shelter and or food for a diversity of species • in northern temperate forest ecosystems, sugar maples are foundation species |
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Beavers
• Ecosystem engineers
are species that have a
dramatic impact on the habitat in which other species live
• They “engineer” the habitat so that it’s conditions are very different for the species that live there |
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| First Law of Thermodynamics |
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• Energy is neither created nor destroyed
• The amount of energy in the universe today is the same amount that was in the universe when it was formed • Energy can be transferred from one body to another
Energy can be transformed from one form to another |
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| Example of First Law of Thermodynamics |
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Definition
| the chemical (potential) energy in food (antelope) can be converted to the kinetic energy of the cheetah’s movement. |
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| Energy Transformations in ecosystems |
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| Solar Energy- Chemical Energy, O2, Sugars- ATP, CO2, Heat |
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| 2nd Law of Thermodynamics |
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Definition
• Energy transfer leads towards entropy • At every transfer of energy, some energy
is lost as heat to the abiotic environment
• The amount of useable energy declines
with every energy transfer
• This sets a fundamental limit on energy flow through ecosystems |
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| Energy flows, matter cycles |
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Gross Primary Production (GPP) =
total amount of chemical energy produced by photoautotrophs through the chemical reactions of photosynthesis (in an area during a given time interval)
Producers: convert CO2 into sugars; plants on land; phytoplankton, macroalgae, and cyanobacteria in oceans/ freshwater ecosystems expressed as:
energy (J)/ unit area/ unit time
g C/m2/yr Net Primary Productivity (NPP) = GPP - Respiration
dry biomass (grams of C) / unit area/ unit time
GPP minus energy used by producers for cellular respiration NPP is the amount that goes into plant growth and reproduction; the amount available to consumers |
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| Secondary production = the amount of new tissue produced by consumers from the foods they ingest during a given time period |
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| Why limiting trophic levels |
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Definition
• a large fraction of energy is released as heat to the abiotic environment with each trophic transfer (each chemical reaction)
• a large fraction of the energy present at each level is used to keep the organisms alive and functioning - cellular respiration, energy used to search for food, catch prey or escape from predators, etc.
• not all organisms at lower trophic levels are consumed |
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| Global patters in productivity |
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Definition
Except for the world’s major deserts, terrestrial productivity declines from the equator toward the poles. Warm temperatures and high water availability generally increase rates of photosynthesis.
Coast lots of productivity |
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| Proof that energy flows to deep sea |
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Definition
food from above - whale carcasses
other deep sea communities supported by hydrothermal vents |
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bacteria and archaea use H2S (or other inorganic molecules) as an energy source.
Happens in hydrothermal vents |
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| path that an element takes as it moves from one compartment or “pool” to another |
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| Biogeochemical cycle example |
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Definition
| N can move from the atmosphere (N2 gas) into other inorganic forms (ammonium, nitrate) into organic forms (proteins, nucleic acids) and into the soil, water or atmosphere |
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| element required for growth or reproduction or metabolic function |
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| building blocks of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates & phospholipids; required in large quantities |
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| nutrients that limit growth of producers; include N, P and K |
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play a critical role in ecosystems:
• bacteria, archaea, fungi and a few other eukaryotes • they make nutrients cycle from detrital pool back to abiotic environment • they break down complex organic molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) from detritus (dead tissue) into inorganic molecules (CO2, NH4+, NO3-) that can be re-used by producers |
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| eed on detritus and associated decomposers and break detritus into smaller fragments which increases decomposition rates |
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Negative effects of increased nitrogen input include anaerobic "dead zones” such as those that occur in the Gulf of Mexico in summer months
Nitrate input causes algal blooms; when algae die, decomposer populations get large and use up available oxygen in water column, resulting in dead zone |
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Definition
- produces 2 genetically identical* daughter cells
- only in eukaryotes; only in somatic cells |
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| - produces 2 genetically identical cells - only in prokaryotes |
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| - produces 4 daughter cells - daughter cells are genetically different - only in eukaryotes; only in germ cells |
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•development & growth
• repair/tissuerenewal
• asexualreproduction
examples- bone marrow cells
multicellular EUK, Hydra |
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| structure made up of DNA and proteins, carries genes |
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| chromosome associated with an individuals sex |
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| chromosome that consists of a single copy |
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| chormosome thats been copied. Consists of 2 linear structres joined at the centrome |
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| chromosme copies in a replicated chromosme |
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| in a diploid organism, choromosmes that are similar in size, and shape |
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| non-sister chormatids- chromatids belonging to homologous chormosomes |
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| homologous replicated chromosomes that are joined together |
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having one of each type of chromosome
N |
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2N
Having 2 of each type of chromosome
all cells but gametes are diploid in humans |
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| chromosomes duplicated.... 2 copies of each chromosome |
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| chromosomes choil, spindle apparatus begins to form |
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| nuclear envelope breaks down, kinetochore microtubles contact chromosomes at kinetochore |
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| all chromosomes line up at center of the cell |
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| chromosomes seperate, one copy of each chromosome pulled to each end up cell by spindle fibers |
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| spindle appartus disinegrates |
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| cell division (cytokenesis) |
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Definition
plasma membrane pinches in
2 daughter cells form |
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Definition
1- chromosome attaches to plasma membrane
2- chromosome replicates
3- cell grows, proteins forms
4- protein constricts, emembrane and cell wall infolds
5- fission complete |
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sister chromatids seperate.
only goes thru prophase II, Metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II and cytokenesis |
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| sex creates genetic variations, and the Red Queen has to run faster and faster to to keep still where she is going. |
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| Genetic Diversity on Meiosis |
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prophase I and metaphase I
Crossing over occurs during prophase I -- produces recombinant chromosomes |
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| cross that occurs between parents that each carry two different genetic determinations for the same trait |
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alternative molecular versions of the same gene
all diploid individuals have 2 alleles for each gene |
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| carries 2 of the same alleles |
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carries 2 different alleles
Hh Pp |
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Alleles separate
during gamete formation & each gamete receives only one allele for each trait |
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Definition
-inheritance is determined by discrete factors; now we call them “genes”
-each individual has 2 alleles (alternate versions of a gene) for each character/trait
-1 allele is inherited from each F2 parent (alleles segregate into gametes) Law of Segregation |
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Definition
sickle-cell anemia – autosomal recessive disorder
achondroplasia – autosomal dominant disorder |
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| allele pairs separate independently during the formation of gametes. This means that traits are transmitted to offspring independently of one another. |
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| - the physical association of genes that are found on the same chromosome but that influence different traits |
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| listing of the alleles in an individual |
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| individuals observable traits |
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| offspring from matings between true-breeding parents that differ in on or more traits |
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| inheretance patterns that result when many genes influence one traits |
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| ability of a single gene to affect more than one phenotypic trait |
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| for evolution to occur by natural selection, these 3 things must occur |
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Definition
1- variation in phenotypes of individuals in a populaiton
2- variation must have a genetic basis
3- unequal survival and reprodcution rates |
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| Differences between the Sexes in Traits Related to Securing Mates |
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- competition within a sex - e.g., competition between males
selects for male reproductive
traits |
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Definition
| - e.g., female mate choice selects for male reproductive traits |
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Definition
occurrence of gametes of different sizes"
Males make many, many small gametes, called sperm."
Females make a fewer, large gametes, called eggs.! |
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| Only male fitness improves with the number of mates |
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