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process by which people act toward or respond to other people
-the foundation for all relationships and groups in society |
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| the complex framework of societal institutions (such as the economy, politics, and religion) and the social practices (such as rules and social roles) that make u a society and that organize and establish limits on people’s behavior |
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| Micro level, and macro level of social interaction |
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| at a macrolevel, the social structure of a society has several elements: social institutions, groups, statuses, roles, and norms |
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| a set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status |
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| socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties |
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comprises all the statuses that a person occupies at a givin time
-Ex. Maria is a Psychologist, professor, mother, cathoic, school volenteer. |
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a social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on
Attributes over which the individual has little or no control (such as race/ethnicity, age, and gender)
-involuntarily—example, an older adult |
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a social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice,
Merit, or direct effort. (VOLUNTARY) |
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the most important status a person occupies
-dominates all of the individal’s other statuses and is the overriding ingredient in determining a person’s General social position |
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| material signs that inform others sa person’s specific status (ex: a wedding ring) |
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| a group’s or society’s definition of the way that a specific role ought to be played |
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| how a person actually plays the role |
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| when the expectations associated with a role are unclear |
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| when incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time. (feeling pulled in different direction) |
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| when in compatible demands are built into a single status that a person occupies |
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when people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self-identity
Primary and secondary groups |
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a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-
Based interactions over an extended period of time.
-family, close friends, and school/work related peer groups |
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| a larger, more specialized group in which members engage in more impersonal,Goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time. |
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| a series of social relationships that links an individual to others |
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| a highly structured group formed for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals. (ex- colleges, corporations, or the government)—“people-processing” organizations |
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| emphasize that social institutions exist because... |
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agree that social institutions are originally organized to meet basic social needs but don’t believe that social institutions work for the common good of everyone in society
-ex: homeless lack the power and resources to promote their own interests when opposed
-social institutions (gov) maintain the privledges of the wealthy and powerful while contributing To the powerlessness of others. |
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| Technology in hunting and gathering societies |
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• Use simple technology for hunting animals and gathering vegetation
• Technology limited to tools and weapon that are used for basic subsistence (spears, bows and arrows, nets, traps for hunting, and digging sticks for plant collecting)
• All tools and weapons are made of a natural materials such as stone, bone, and wood. |
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| What did Emile Durkheim say about preindustrial societies? |
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• Preindustrial societies are held together by strong traditions and by the members’ shared moral beliefs and values
• As societies industrialized and developed more specialized economic activities, social solidarity came to be rooted in the members’ shared dependence on one another.
• Social solidarity is based on the society’s division of labor. |
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| the social cohesion of preindustiral societies, in which there is minimal division of labor and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds. |
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the social cohesion found in industrial (and perhaps postindustrial societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence.
-more practical- dependent on eachother like organs in body. |
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characterize the degree of social solidarity and social control found in societies
- concerned about what happens to social solidarity in a social when a “loss of community” occurs |
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traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability.
-"community" strong sense of belonging |
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a large, urban society in which social bonds are based on impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values
-"association" based on interaction btw people |
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| a false belief or prediction that produces behavior that makes the originally false belief come true (person always told he’s a good student, believes it, stops studying, and fails) |
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| the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves |
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| the study of social interaction that compares everyday life to theatrical presentation |
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the transfer of information between person without the use of words
-supplements verbal communication |
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| the immediate area surrounding a person that the person claims as private |
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| Primary and secondary groups |
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-primary group-a small, lesS specialized groupSmembers engage in face-to-face, emotion-based.Interactions over an extended period of time have ordinary relationships with our significant others, who can serve as role models.
-secondary groupa larger, more specialized group in which the members engage in more impersonal,Goal oriented relationships for a limited period of time (size may vary) |
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| a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but share little else in common(ex: shoppers in a department store and passengers on an airplane flight)—share a common purpose |
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| a number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic (such as education level, age, race, or gender) |
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| a group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity |
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| a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility. |
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| a group that strongly influences a person’s behavior and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member |
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| a web of social relationships that links one person with other people and through them, with other people they know |
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| a group composed of two members |
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| a group composed of three members |
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people who make all major group decisions and assign tasks to members
-Focus on instrumental tasks of group and demand compliance from others |
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leaders who encourage group discussions and assign tasks to members
-May be praised for their expressive, supportive behavior toward group members, but blamed for being indecisive in times of crisis |
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| leaders who are only minimally involved in decision making and who encourage group members to make their own decisions |
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| Instrumental leadership (type) |
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| goal-or task-oriented leadership |
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| Expressive leadership (type) |
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| an approach to leadership that provides emotional support for members (when dealing with emotional issues, and harmony, solidarity, and high morale are needed) |
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| the process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group |
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| the process by which members of a cohesive group arrive at a decision that many individual members privately believe is unwise |
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a highly structured secondary group formed for the purpose of achieving specific goals in the most efficient manner
-ex: schools, corporations, schools and government |
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voluntarily join when you want to pursue some common interest or gain personal satisfaction or prestige from being a member.
Ex: political parties, ecological activist groups, religious organizations, parent-teacher associations, and college sororities and fraternities |
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people don’t voluntarily become members—associations people are forced to join.
-Total institutions: boot camps, prisons, and some mental hospitals |
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| voluntarily join when they can provide a material reward |
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| MOST UNIVERSAL ORGANIZATONAL FORM OF government, business, education, & religion. |
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| any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it occurs |
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| behavior that violates criminal law and is punishable with fines, jail terms, and/or other negative sanctions (range from minor offenses-traffic violations- to major offenses-murder.) |
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| a violation of law or the commission of a status offense by young people |
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| systematic practices developed by social groups to encourage conformity to norms, rules, and laws and to discourage deviance |
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takes place through the socialization process
-individuals internalize societal norms and values that follow those norms and values in their everyday lives |
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| the use of negative sanctions that proscribe that proscribe certain behaviors and set forth the punishments for rule breakers and nonconformists |
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| the systematic study of crime an the criminal justice system, including the police, courts, and prisons |
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•Deviance clarifies rules
-by punishing deviant behavior, society reaffirms its commitment to the rules and clarifies their meaning
•Deviance unites a group
-When deviant behavior is seen as a threat to group solidarity and people unite in opposition to that behavior, their loyalties to society are reinforced.
•Deviance promotes social changes -Deviants may violate norms in order to get them changed |
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| Robert Merrton-people feel strain when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to obtain because they do not have access to culturally approved means of achieving those goals |
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access to illegitimate opportunities—Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin
•Lower-class delinquents subscribe to middle-class values but cannot attain them
-they form gangs to gain social status and may achieve their goals through illegitimate means |
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| circumstances that provide an opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve through legitimate channels |
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| Rational choice theory of deviance |
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based on the assumption that when people are faced with several courses of action
• Deviant behavior occurs when a person weighs the costs and benefits and determines that the benefits will outweigh the risks involved in such actions
• Suggest that most people who commit crimes do not engage in random acts of antisocial behavior but make careful decisions based on weighing the available information regarding situational and personal factors. |
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Howard Becker the proposition that deviance is a socially constructed process in which social control agencies designate certain people in which social control agencies designate certain people as deviants, and they in turn, come to accept the label placed upon them and begin to act accordingly
• Acts are deviant or criminal because they have been labeled as such |
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| a serious crime such as rape, homicide, or aggravated assault, for which punishment typically ranges from more than a year’s imprisonment to death |
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| -a minor crime that is typically punished by less than one year in jail |
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| the major source of information on crimes reported in the US |
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| Occupational(white collar) crime |
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| Edwin Sutherland- illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or financial affairs |
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| - illegal acts committed by corporate employees on behalf of the corporation and with its support |
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| illegal or unethical acts involving the usurpation of power by government officials, or illegal/unethical; acts perpetrated against the government by outsiders seeking to make a political statement, undermine the government, or overthrow it. |
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| any action designed to deprive a person of things of value (including liberty) because of some offense the person is thought to have committed |
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| the hierachical arrangement of large social groups based on their control over basic resources |
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| the extent to which individuals have access to important societal resources such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and healthcares |
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| Intergenerational mobility |
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the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next
-Sarah’s father was a carpenter but she’s a neurologist (between her father’s generation and her own) |
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| Intragenerational mobility |
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the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime
o From factory worker->entrepreneur |
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a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents’ ascribed characteristics.
– exist today in India and South Africa |
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a type of stratification based on ownership and control of resources and on the type of work people do
• More open than a caste, because boundaries between classes are less distinct than the boundaries between castes |
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| the value of all a person’s or family’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property |
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| the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others |
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| the respect or regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others |
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| a combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education to determine class location |
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20% of the U.S. population
• Live just above to just below the poverty line and typically hold unskilled jobs, seasonal migrant jobs in agriculture, lower-paid factory jobs, and service jobs (counter help) |
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| some degree of social inequality is necessary for the smooth functioning of society (in order to fill the most important functions) and thus is inevitable |
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| powerful individuals and groups use ideology to maintain their favored positions in society at the expense of others, and wealth is not necessary in order to motivate people |
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| the beliefs and actions of people reflect their class location in society |
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| exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities in life—often has life threatening consequences |
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exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living
o family must have income substantially above the official poverty line in order to afford the basic necessities, even when these are purchased at the lowest possible costs |
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| measured by comparing the actual income against the income earner’s expectations and perceptions |
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| The Feminization of Poverty |
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| the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty |
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| a reduction in the proficiency needed to perform a specific job that leads to a corresponding reduction in the wages for that jobs |
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| the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a global basis, resulting in people having vastly different lifestyles and life chances both within and among the nations of the world |
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| nations characterized by highly industrialized economists: theoretically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations, and relatively high levels of national and per capita income |
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| nations with industrializing economies, partially in urban areas, and moderate levels of national and personal income |
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| primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization and low levels of nation and personal income |
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| well being that can be measured by the quality of goods and services that may be purchased by the per capita national income |
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| a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity |
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MOST widely knowna perspective that links global inequality to different levels of economic development and suggests that low income economies can move to
Middle- and high-income economies by achieving self-sustained economic growth |
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| that the global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact that the low-income countries have been exploited by the high-income countries |
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| suggest that what exists under capitalism is a truly global system that is held together by economic ties |
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| New International Division of Labor Theory |
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commodity production is being split into fragments that can be assigned to whichever part of the world can provide the most profitable combination
Of capital and labor. |
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