Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience |
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Term
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Definition
| Behaviorism is a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behavior, discounting the importance of such menatl activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping. |
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Term
| What is associative learning? |
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Definition
| Associative Learning occurs when a connection, or an association, is made between two events. |
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Term
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Definition
| Conditioning is the process of learnign associations |
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Term
| In classical conditioning, ___________________________. As a result of this association, ___________________________________. |
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli. As a result of this association, organisms learn to anticipate events |
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Term
In operant conditioning...
As a result of this association... |
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Definition
....organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence.
....organisms learn to increase behaviors that are followed by rewards and to decrease behaviors that are followed by punishment. |
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Term
| What is observable learning? |
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Definition
| Observable learning is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior; also called imitation or modeling |
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Term
| What is classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| a neuteral stimulus (the flower) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (the pain of a bee sting) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response (fear). |
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Term
| What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? |
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Definition
| A UCS is a stimulus that produces a response without any prior learning. |
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Term
| What is an unconditioned response (UCR)? |
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Definition
| A UCR is an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by the UCS. |
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Term
| What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? |
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Definition
| The CS is a previously neuteral stimulus that eventually elicits the conditioned response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus. |
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Term
| What is the conditioned response (CR)? |
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Definition
| The CR is a learned responseto the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CR-UCS pairing |
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Term
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Definition
| Acquisition in classical conditioning is the initial learning of the stimulus-response link. |
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Term
| What are 2 important aspects of Acquisition? |
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Definition
| Timing and Contingency/Predictability |
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Term
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Definition
| Connectedness in time and space, or the time interval between the CS and the UCS |
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Term
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Definition
| Contingency in classical conditioning means the predictability of the occurance of one stimulus from the presence of another, or, the frequency with which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus occur together. |
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Term
| What is generalization in classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| Generalization in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similqr to the origional conditioned stimulus to elicit a responce that is similar to the conditioned response. |
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Term
| What is discrimination in terms of classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| Discrimination in classical conditioning is the process of learning to respond to a certain stimuli and not to others. |
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Term
| What is extinction in terms of classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| Extinction in classical conditioning is the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. |
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Term
| What is spontaneous recovery in terms of classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| Sponatenous recovery is the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning. |
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Term
| Who coined the term behaviorism? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is counterconditioning as it relates to classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| Counterconditioning is a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a CR by assoctiating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new reponse that is incompatible with the fear |
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Term
| Classical conditioning describes __________, whereas Operant Conditioning places more emphasis on_____________. |
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Definition
| Classical conditioning describes an organism's response to the environment, whereas Operant Conditioning places more emphasis on the organism's activity in the environment. |
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Term
| Classical conditioning is a form of respondent behavior, which is... |
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Definition
| Behavior that occurs in automatic response to a stimulus such as nausea-producing drug, and later to a cinditioned stimulus such sweet water that was paired with the drug |
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Term
| Who developed the concept of opersnt conditioning? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurance |
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Term
| What is the law of effect and who developed it? |
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Definition
| The law of effect,developed by Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. |
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Term
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Definition
| Shaping refers to rewarding approximations of a desired behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus or an event strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior or an event that it follows. |
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Term
| What is positive reinforcement? |
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Definition
| In positive reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus. |
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Term
| What is negative reinforcement? |
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Definition
| In negative reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. |
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Term
| What is Primary reinforcement? Give examples. |
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Definition
Primary reinforcement involves the use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying; that is they do not take any learning on the organism's part to make them pleasurable. Examples include: Food, Water,
Sexual Satisfaction |
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Term
| What is Secondary Reinforcement> Give Examples. |
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Definition
| Secondary Reinforcement acquires its positive valu through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned or conditioned reinforcers. Examples include: a pat on the pack, praise, eye contact |
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Term
| What is a token reinforcer? |
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Definition
| When an object can be exchanged for some other reinforcer, the object may have reinforcing value itself, so it is called a token reinforcer. An example of this: Money, gift certificates, and poker chips |
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Term
| What is continuous reinforcement? |
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Definition
| This occurs when a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. |
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Term
| What is partial reinforcement? |
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Definition
| Partial reinforcement follows a behavior only a portion of a time. Example: You dont win every game of pin ball etc. |
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Term
| What are schedules of reinforement? |
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Definition
| Schedules of Reinforcement are timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. |
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Term
| Name the 4 main schedules of reinforement and define each of them. |
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Definition
| [Fixed-Ratio schedule- reinforces behavior after a set number of behaviors.] {Variable-Ratio schedule- a timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on a predictable basis.} (Fixed-Interval schedule- reinforces the first appropriate behavior after a fixed amount of time has elapsed.) |
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Term
| What is Generalization in terms of operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, generalization means giving the same response to similar stimuli. |
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Term
| What is discrimination in terms of operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, discrimination means responding to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. |
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Term
| What is Extinction in terms of operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, and there is a decreased tendency to perform the behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Punishment is a cinsequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur. |
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Term
| In punishment _______________, In reinforcement __________________. |
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Definition
| In punishment, a behavior is weakened, in reinforcement, a behavior is strengthened |
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Term
| What happens in positive punishment? |
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Definition
| In positive punishment, a behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus. |
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Term
| What happens in negative punishment? |
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Definition
| In negative punishment, a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it (time out is an example). |
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Term
| What is the Premack principal? |
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Definition
The Premack Principal states that high-probability activity can be used to reinforce a low-probability activity. {Probability here means the likelihood of occurance}
(Such as if a child likes to surf the internet, you can tell a child you can surf the internet if you get your times tables memorized) |
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| What did E. C. Tolman emphasize, and what is it? |
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Definition
| Purposiveness- the idea that much of behavior is goal-directed |
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Term
| Expectancies are acquired from what? |
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Definition
| People's experiences with their environment, |
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Term
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Definition
| It is an organism's mental representation of the structure of physical space |
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| What is latent, or implicit, learning? |
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Definition
| It is unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior. |
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Term
| What is insight learning? |
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Definition
| It is a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution. |
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Term
| what is instinctive drift? |
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Definition
| It is the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others. |
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Term
| What is learned helplessness? |
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Definition
| This is the phenomenon of learning through wexperience that outcomes are not controllable |
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Term
| What is a result of learned helplessness? |
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Definition
| The organism stops trying to exert control at all. |
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Term
| Which neurotransmitter has been shown to be most closely associated with reinforcement of behaviors? |
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Definition
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Term
| Entity theory states that |
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Definition
| intelligence is fixed and cannot be altered. |
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Term
| Taste aversion can be explained by |
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Definition
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| One of the students in your class often asks questions of your professor. You see that the professor rolls her eyes each time the student asks a question. You find that you are reluctant to ask the professor a question. What have you experienced? |
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Definition
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Term
| Which brain structure has been shown to be related to learning through reinforcement? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is memory? Memory occurs through 3 important processes, which are: |
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Definition
| Memory is the retention of information or experience over time. Memory occurs through 3 important processes: encoding, storage, and retreival. |
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Term
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Definition
| Encoding is the process by which information gets into memory storage. |
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Term
| What is divided attention? |
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Definition
| It occurs when a person must attend to several things simultaniously |
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Term
| What is the concept of levels of processing referring to? |
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Definition
| It refers to the idea that encoding occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory. |
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Term
| What are the 3 levels of processing, explain what they are. |
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Definition
| {Shallow Level- The sensory or physical features of stimuli are analyzed. For instance we might detect the lines of a printed word.} (Intermediate Level- The stimulus is recognized and given a label. For example, we identify 4-legged barking objects as a dog.) [Deepest Level- Information is processed semantically, in terms of its meaning.] |
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Definition
| Elaboration is the extensiveness of processing at any given level. |
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Term
| What is the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory? |
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Definition
| It states that memory involves 3 seperate systems: {Sensory Memory: time frames of a fraction of a second to several seconds} [Short-Term Memory: time frames up to 30 seconds] (Long-Term Memory: time frames of up to a lifetime) |
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Term
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Definition
| Sensory memory holds information from the world in its origional sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory,and other senses. |
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Definition
| Echoic Memory is the name given to auditory sensory memory, which is retained for up to several seconds |
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Definition
| It is the name given to visual sensory memory, which is only retained for about one-fourth of a second. |
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Term
| What is short-term memory? |
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Definition
| Short-term memory is a limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used to retain it longer. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chunking involves grouping or "packing" information that exceeds the & plus or minus memory span into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units. |
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Term
| Who proposed the concept of working memory and what is working memory? |
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Definition
| Alan Baddely proposed the concept of working memory, which is a 3 part sytem that temporarily holds information as people perform cognitive tasks. |
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Term
| What is long term memory? |
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Definition
| Long-term memory is a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time. |
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Term
| In simple terms, explicit memory has to do with remembering ____, ____, _____, ____ & ___; implicit memory has to do with remembering ___. |
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Definition
| In simple terms, explicit memory has to do with remembering who, what, where, when & why; implicit memory has to do with remembering how. |
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Term
| What is explicit (or declarative) memory? |
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Definition
| Explicit Memory is the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least humans, information that can be verbally communicated. |
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Definition
| Episodic memory is the retention of information about where, when, and what of life's happenigns. |
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Definition
| Semantic Memory is a person's knowledge about the world. It includes your are of expertise, general knowledge of the sort you are learnign in school, and everyday knowledge about the meaning of words, famous individuals, important places, and common things. |
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Term
| What is implicit (or nondeclarative) memory? |
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Definition
| Implicit memory is memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience. |
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Term
| What are the 3 subsystems of implicit memory, and define each. |
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Definition
| The 3 Subsystems are {Procedural memory- involves memory for skills.} [Classical Conditioning- defined in chapter 7] (Priming- is the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster. |
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Definition
| Ideomotoring is the way that automatic processes impact social behavior outside of awareness. |
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| What are the 4 main theories of how long-term memory is organized. |
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Definition
| Hierarchies, semantic networks, schemas, and connection networks |
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Definition
| A hierarchy is a system in which items are organized from general to specific classes. |
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| What are semantic networks? |
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Definition
| We often use semantic networks to organize material in eposodic memory (a form of explicit memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| A schema is a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. |
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Term
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Definition
| A script is a schema for an event |
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Term
| What is connectionism (or parallel distributing process)? |
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Definition
| The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory. |
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Term
| What is memory retrieval? |
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Definition
| The memory process of taking information out of storage. |
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Term
| What is the serial positioning effect? |
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Definition
| The tendency for items at the beginning and at the end of a list to be recalled more readily than those in the middle of the list. |
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Term
| What is the primacy effect? |
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Definition
| It refers to better recall of items at the beginning of a list |
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Term
| What is the recency effect? |
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Definition
| It refers to better recall of items at the end of a list |
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Term
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Definition
| It is a memory task in which the individual only has to identify (recognize) learned items, as on multiple choice tests |
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Term
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Definition
| It is a memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information, as on essays. |
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Term
| What is the encoding specificity principal? |
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Definition
| It states that info. presented at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue. |
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Term
| What is context-dependant memory? |
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Definition
| This is a process that in many instances people remember better when they attempt to recall info. in the same context in which they learned it |
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Term
| What is state-dependant memory? |
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Definition
| This is a process in which people tend to remember info. better when their psychological state or mood is similar at encoding and retrieval |
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Term
| What is autobiographical memory? |
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Definition
| A special form of episodic memory consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences. |
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Term
| what is flashbulb memory? |
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Definition
| The memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall more accurately and vividly than everyday events. |
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Term
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Definition
| It refers to a defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that he or she forgets it and then forgetsthe act of forgetting |
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Term
| If it does exsist, repression can be considered a special case of motivated forgetting, which is: |
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Definition
| An act of forgetting something because it is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable. |
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Term
| What is encoding failure? |
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Definition
| It occurs when the info. was never entered into long-term memory. |
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Term
| What is the Interferance theory? |
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Definition
| Theory stating that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember. |
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Term
| What is Proactive Interferance? |
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Definition
| Situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later. |
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Term
| What is Retroactive Interferance? |
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Definition
| Situation in which material learned later disrupts the retrieval of information learned earlier. |
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| What is the Decay Theory? |
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Definition
| Theory stating that when something new is learned, a neurochemical memory trace is formed, but over time this trace tends to disintegrate. |
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Term
| What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (or TOT state)? |
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Definition
| The "effortful retrieval" that occurs when people are confident that they know something but cannot pull it out of memory. |
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| What is Retrospective memory? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is Prospective memory? |
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Definition
| Remembering information about doing something in the future. |
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Term
| What is Time-Based prospective memory? |
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Definition
| It is your intention to engage in a given behavior after a specified amount of time has gone by. |
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| What is Event-Based prospective memory? |
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Definition
| In this you engage in the intended behavior when it is elicited by some external event or cue |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is anterograde amnesia? |
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Definition
| A memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events |
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Term
| What is retrograde amnesia? |
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Definition
| A memory disorder that involves memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events. |
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Term
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Definition
| A memory disorder that involves memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events. |
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