Geography

Spatial

Geography-"Earth Discription" the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere. (Human interaction is Human Geography)

Spatial- the distributional and locational relationships of things around the world

Science

Empirical

Science: as a process that follows the scientific method

Empirical- based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic.

Hypothesis vs. theory

Prediction

Hypothesis- proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

Theory- represents the highest order of understanding for a body of information—a logical, well tested explanation that encompasses a wide variety of facts and observations.

Prediction- a thing predicted; a forecast

Systems -we mean a collection of things and processes connected together and operating as a whole.

Matter

Energy

Matter- that which occupies space and possesses rest mass, especially as distinct from energy.

Energy- The ability to do work; anything that has the ability to change the state or condition of matter.

Input

Output

Feedback

Input- Matter and energy that enter the system

Output- losses from the system to its surroundings

Feedback -the modification or control of a process or system by its results or effects

Climatology

Meteorology

Climatology- An aggregate of day-to-day weather conditions and weather extremes over a long period of time, usually at least 30 years.

Meteorology-the branch of science concerned with the processes and phenomena of the atmosphere, especially as a means of forecasting the weather

Biosphere

Lithosphere

Hydrosphere (cryosphere)

Atmosphere

Biosphere-The living organisms of Earth.

Lithosphere-Tectonic plates consisting of the crust and upper rigid mantle. Also used as a general term for the entire solid Earth

Hydrosphere-Total water realm of Earth, including the oceans, surface waters of the lands, groundwater, and water held in the atmosphere.Cyrosphere- Subsphere of the hydrosphere that encompasses water frozen as snow or ice.

Atmosphere-The gaseous envelope surrounding Earth.

Biogeography

Geomorphology

Hydrology

Biogeography-The study of the distribution patterns of plants and animals, and how these patterns change over time.

Geomorphology-The study of the characteristics, origin, and development of landforms.

Hydrology- is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth

Latitude

Longitude

Latitude-Location described as an angle measured north and south of the equator.

Longitude-Location described as an angle measured (in degrees,minutes, and seconds) east and west from the prime meridian on Earth’s surface.

Parallel

Meridian

Parallel- A line connecting all points of equal latitude; such a line is parallel to all other parallels.

Meridian- An imaginary line of longitude extending from pole to pole,crossing all parallels at right angles, and being aligned in true north–south directions.

Great circle

Small circle

Great circle- the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere; it represents the circumference of that sphere and divides its surface into two equal halves or hemispheres

Small circle- A small circle results from the intersection of Earth’s surface with any plane that does not pass through Earth’s center.

Hemisphere- a half of the earth, usually as divided into northern and southern halves by the equator, or into western and eastern halves by an imaginary line passing through the poles

High latitude—latitudes greater than about 60° N& S

Midlatitude—between about 30° and 60° N & S

Low latitude—generally between the equator & 30°N&S

Equatorial—within a few degrees of the equator

Tropical—within the tropics (between 23.5°N & 23.5°S)

Subtropical—slightly poleward of the tropics around 25–30° N & S

Polar—within a few degrees of the N or S Pole

Ecliptic- The imaginary planedefined by the orbital path of Earth around the Sun iscalled the plane of the ecliptic

Earth’s rotation axis is inclined 23.5° from a line

perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.

Perihelion

Aphelion

Perihelion-The point in its orbit where Earth is nearest to the Sun (about 147,100,000 kilometers or 91,400,000 miles).

Aphelion- The point in Earth’s elliptical orbit at which Earth is farthest from the Sun (about 152,100,000 kilometers or 94,500,000 miles).

Rotation

Revolution

Rotation- The spinning of Earth around its imaginary north–south axis.

Revolution- The orbital movement of Earth around the Sun over the year.

North pole

South pole

North pole- Latitude of 90° north.

South pole- Latitude of 90° south.

The tilt of Earth’s rotational axis relative to its orbital plane (the plane of the ecliptic).

Earth’s rotation axis is inclined 23.5° from a line

perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.

Polarity (parallelism)- [of Earth’s rotation axis] A characteristic of Earth’s axis wherein it always points toward Polaris (the North Star) at every position in Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Also called parallelism.

Solstice (june, december)

Equinox (march, september)

Solstice (june, december)Latitude of Vertical

Rays of Sun @ 23.5N&S degrees 12 hours of day length.

(Day length becomes longer with increasinglatitude north of equator)

Equinox (march, september): Latitude of Vertical

Rays of Sun @ 0 degrees 12 hours of day length

-Tropic of Cancer- The parallel of 23.5° N latitude, which marks the northernmost location reached by the vertical rays of the Sun in the annual cycle of Earth’s revolution.

Tropic of Capricorn- The parallel of 23.5° S latitude, which marks the southernmost location reached by the vertical rays of the Sun in the annual cycle of Earth’s revolution.

 Arctic Circle: The northern polar circle, at 66.5° N

Antarctic Circle: The southern polar circle, at 66.5° S

Both day length and the angle at which the Sun’s rays strike Earth determine the amount of solar energy received at any particular latitude.

As a generalization, the higher the Sun is in the sky, the more effective is the warming. Day length influences patterns of solar energy receipt on Earth as well.

At the equator is day length constant- virtually 12 hours of daylight every day. For all regions in the Northern Hemisphere up to the latitude of the Arctic Circle, after the shortest day of the year on the December solstice, the number of hours of daylight gradually increases, reaching 12 hours of daylight on the March equinox. After the equinox, day length continues to increase until the longest day of the year on the June solstice. (During this period, day length is diminishing in the Southern Hemisphere.)

Following the longest day of the year in the Northern

Hemisphere on the June solstice, the pattern is reversed, with the days getting shorter in the Northern Hemisphere—reaching 12 hours on the September equinox, and then diminishing until the shortest day of the year on the December solstice. (During this period, day length is ncreasing in the Southern Hemisphere.)

Depletion- reduction in the number or quantity of something. OZONE and such

Cartography

Map projection

Cartography- the science or practice of drawing maps

Map projection- A systematic representation of all or part of the three dimensional Earth surface on a two-dimensional flat surface.

Title

Distortion

Scale

Direction

Symbol

Title: brief summary of the map’s content or purpose. Date:indicate the time span over which the information was collected.

Distortion: the geometric impossibility of flattening a sphere without distortion

Legend: explain the symbolization

Scale: Any map must be drawn to scale, at least approximately graphic, verbal,or fractional scale.

Direction: Use of parallels, Meridians, or a North Arrow Symbol:

Equivalent

Conformal

Equivalent- the correct size ratio of area on the map to the corresponding actual area on Earth’s surface is maintained over the entire map.

Conformal- A projection that maintains proper angular relationships over the entire map; over limited areas shows the correct shapes of features shown on a map.

Gis: Geographic Information System

Gps: Global Positioning System

Gis: Geographic Information System- Computerized systems for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display of spatial (geographic) data.

Gps: Global Positioning System- A satellite-based system for determining accurate positions on or near Earth’s surface.

Atmospheric Composition:

Sun-Like Gases

Volcanic Gases

Carbon Dioxide

Free Oxygen

Nitrogen

Sun-Like Gases-

Volcanic Gases-

Carbon Dioxide-CO2; minor gas in the atmosphere; one of the greenhouse gases; by-product of combustion and respiration.

Free Oxygen- oxygen makes up nearly 21 percent. free oxygen is single oxygen molecules split by UVray

Nitrogen- N2; Nitrogen makes up more than 78 percent of the total, Volcanos and decay

Anaerobic Photosynthesizers

Aerobic Photosynthesizers

Anaerobic Photosynthesizers-

Aerobic Photosynthesizers-

O3

OZONE

Hole

O3:A gas composed of molecules consisting of three atoms of oxygen,O3.

OZone: The layer in the atmosphere between 16 and 40 kilometers(10 and 25 miles) high, where the concentration of ozone is greatest; the ozone layer absorbs much of the incoming ultraviolet solar radiation.

The natural formation and breakdown of ozone. Ultraviolet radiation splits oxygen molecules (O2) into free oxygen atoms (O), some of which combine with other O2 molecules to form ozone (O3); also under the influence of UV light, ozone naturally breaks back down into O2 and a free oxygen atom.

Hole: thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer near poles

Synthetic chemicals destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere.

1-Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) molecule, breaking off a chlorine atom.

2- The chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule, pulling an oxygen atom off it.

3- The chlorine atom and the oxygen atom join to form a chlorine monoxide molecule.

4- A free oxygen atom pulls the oxygen atom off the chlorine monoxide molecule.

Anthropogenic -originating in human activity

Global climate change appears to be humanenhanced

greenhouse effect. Since the industrial era began

in the mid-1700s, human activities have increased the

concentrations of greenhouse gases—such as carbon dioxide, methane, tropospheric ozone, and chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere increase, more terrestrial radiation is retained in the lower atmosphere, thereby increasing global temperatures.

Electromagnetic radiation can be classified on the basis of wavelength—the distance between the crest of one wave and the crest of the next

Flow of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves; radiant energy.

Electromagnetic radiation entails the flow of energy in

the form of waves. These waves of energy move through

space by way of rapidly oscillating electromagnetic fields.

These electromagnetic fields are oscillating at the same frequencyas the vibrations of the electrical charges that form them

Description of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance; the more vigorous the “jiggling” of the molecules (and therefore the greater the internal kinetic energy), the higher the temperature of a substance; in popular terms, a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance.

The entrance of insolation into the upper atmosphere

is just the beginning of a complex series of events in the

atmosphere and at Earth’s surface. Some of the insolation is reflected off the atmosphere back out into space, where it is lost. The remaining insolation may pass through the atmosphere, where it can be transformed either before or after reaching Earth’s surface.

 Transformation Processes

Radiation

Absorption

Reflection

Radiation The process in which electromagnetic energy is emitted from a body; the flow of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Absorption- The ability of an object to assimilate energy from electromagnetic

waves that strike it.

Reflection- The ability of an object to repel waves without altering either the object or the waves.

Transfer (Moving Energy)

Transmission (Radiation: A Transfer Process)

Conduction

Convection

Transmission-Transmission is the process whereby electromagneticwaves pass completely through a medium, as when lightwaves are transmitted through a pane of clear, colorless glass.

Conduction- The movement of energy from one molecule to another without changing the relative positions of the molecules. It enables the transfer of heat between different parts of a stationary body.

Convection- Energy transfer through the vertical circulation and movement of fluids, such as air, due to density differences.

-Cooling by expansion, such as in rising air.

-Warming by compression, such as in descending air.

High Heat Capacity (Specific Heat)

Latent Heat

Specific heat (or specific heat capacity)is the amount of energy required to increase the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C.

Latent Heat- Energy stored or released when a substance changes state. For example, evaporation is a cooling process because latent heat is stored and condensation is a warming process because latent heat is released.

Earth’s water is found naturally in three

states: as a liquid, as a solid, and as a gas.

The great majority of the world’s moisture

is in the form of liquid water, which can

be converted to the gaseous form (water

vapor) by evaporation or to the solid form

(ice) by freezing. Water vapor can be converted

to liquid water by condensation or

directly to ice by sublimation.

Wavelength and Height

Micrometer (Micron)

Wave height - The vertical distance from wave crest to trough.

Wavelength- The horizontal distance from wave crest to crest or from trough to trough.

Micrometer (Micron)- a unit of length equal to one millionth of a meter, used in many technological and scientific fields.

Spectrum Solar Spectrum

Ultraviolet

Visible Light

Infrared

Ultraviolet Wavelengths of radiation just shorter than the human eye can sense, with wavelengths from about 0.01 to 0.4 micrometers, make up the ultraviolet (UV) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Visible Light Wavelengths of radiation to which the human eye is sensitive, and include wavelengths between about 0.4 and 0.7 micrometers

Infrared Radiation: Wavelengths of radiation just

longer than the human eye can sense make up the

infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum,

with wavelengths between 0.7 and about 1000

micrometers (1 millimeter).

Solar Shortwave

Terrestrial Longwave

Solar Shortwave -Solar radiation is almost completely in the form of visible light, ultraviolet and short infrared radiation, which as a group is referred to as shortwave radiation

Terrestrial Longwave-radiation—is entirely

in the thermal infrared portion of the spectrum and is referred to as longwave radiation.

Troposphere

Tropopause

Stratosphere

Troposphere- The lowest thermal layer of the atmosphere, in which temperature decreases with height; the layer of the atmosphere in contact with Earth’s surface.

Tropopause- the interface between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

Stratosphere-Atmospheric layer directly above the troposphere.

Sensible heat is the energy required to change the temperature of a substance with no phase change.

Net Radiation Balance

 Positive and Negative Radiation Balance

Net Radiation Balance- there is a long-term balance between incoming and outgoing radiation for the Earth–atmosphere complex as a whole; in other words, the net radiation balance for Earth is zero.

Positive Radiation Balance: Heating

Negative Radiation Balance: Cooling

Diurnal Cycle

Lag Time

Diurnal cycle is any pattern that recurs every 24 hours as a result of one full rotation of the Earth

Example: Diurnal temperature cycle in the desert. Hot during day, cold at night

Lag time: Time between peaks of a phenominom

Continentality

Maritime effect

Continental effect 

Continentality-  tendency for the middle region of a continent to experience a wider temperature range than the coastal region (remoteness from ocean)

Maritime effect:The effect that large ocean bodies have on the climate of locations or regions. This effect results in a lower range in surface air temperature at both daily and annual scales.

Continental effect: The effect that continental surfaces have on the climate of locations or regions.

Atmospheric Pressure

Barometer

Millibars

Atmospheric Pressure-The force exerted by the atmosphere on a surface.

Barometer-Instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Millibars- A measure of pressure, consisting of one-thousandth part of a bar, or 1000 dynes per square centimeter (1 dyne is the force needed to accelerate 1 gram of mass 1 centimeter per second per second).

Wind

Pressure

Gradient Isobars

Wind- Horizontal air movement.

Pressure Gradient: Change in atmospheric pressure over some horizontal distance.

Isobars- A line joining points of equal atmospheric pressure.

Resistance between the contact surfaces of two bodies in motion. friction causes wind flow to be turbulent and irregular. Reduces coriolis effect

Friction Layer Zone of the atmosphere, between Earth’s surface and an altitude of about 1000 meters (3300 feet), where most frictional resistance to air flow is found.

Wind Names:

Sea Breeze (Onshore)

Land Breeze (Offshore)

Santa Ana Wind

Sea Breeze-A wind that blows from the sea toward the land, usually during the day.

Land Breeze- Local wind blowing from land to water, usually at night.

Santa Ana Wind- Name given to dry, usually warm, and often very strong winds blowing offshore in southern California region.

7 Components of General (Primary) Circulation:

1. Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

2. Trade winds

3. Subtropical highs

4. Westerlies

5. Polar front (Subpolar lows)

6. Polar easterlies

7. Polar highs

1. Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)-The region near or on the equator where the northeast trades and the southeast trades converge

2. Trade winds- The major easterly wind system of the tropics, issuing from the equatorward sides of the subtropical highs and diverging toward the west and toward the equator.

3. Subtropical highs-Large, semipermanent, high-pressure cells centered at about 30° N and S over the oceans, which have average diameters of 3200 kilometers (2000 miles) and are usually elongated east–west.

4. Westerlies- Winds flow basically from west to east around the world in the latitudinal zone between about 30° and 60° both north and south of the equator.

5. Polar front (Subpolar lows)- A zone of low pressure that is situated at about 50° to 60° of latitude in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres (also referred to as the polar front).

6. Polar easterlies- A global wind system that occupies most of the area between the polar highs and about 60° of latitude. The winds move generally from east to west and are typically cold and dry.

7. Polar highs-A high-pressure cell overpolar regions.

Seasonal Shift (Of Itcz And Primary Pressure Zones)

Ideal Model Differential Heating Of Land And Water

The seven surface components of the general circulation shift latitudinally with the changing seasons. When sunlight, and therefore surface warming, is concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere (Northern Hemisphere summer), all components are displaced northward; during the opposite season (Southern Hemisphere summer), everything is shifted southward. The displacement is greatest in the low latitudes and least in the polar regions. The ITCZ, for example, can be found as much as 25° north of the equator in July and 20° south of the equator in January

A strong outflow of dry continental air, largely from the northwest, is associated with anticyclonic circulation around the massive thermal high-pressure cellover western Eurasia called the Siberian High

Ocean Circulation:

Surface Currents

Equatorial Current

Ocean Circulation:the large scale movement of waters in the ocean basins. Winds drive surface circulation, and the cooling and sinking of waters in the polar regions drive deep circulation. 

Surface Currents: Wind can also propel the surface of the water to move forward in the form of a current. 

Equatorial Current: On the equatorward side of each subtropical gyre is an Equatorial Current, which moves steadily from east to west. The equatorial currents have an average position 5° to 10° north or south of the equator and are propelled the east-to-west blowing trade winds.

Arrangement of surface ocean currents into a large macro-scale circular pattern of flow

Poleward

Equatorward

Poleward- toward or in the direction of a pole of the earth

Equatorward-  toward or near the equator

Evapotranspiration

Condensation

Precipitation

Evapotranspiration- The transfer of moisture to the atmosphere by transpiration from plants and evaporation from soil and plants.

Condensation-Process by which water vapor is converted to liquid water; a warming process because latent heat is released

Precipitation-Drops of liquid or solid water falling from clouds.

Absolute Humidity

Specific Humidity

Relative Humidity

Absolute Humidity- One measure of the actual water vapor content of air, expressed as the mass of water vapor in a given volume of air.

Specific Humidity- A direct measure of water-vapor content expressed as the mass of water vapor in a given mass of air.

Relative Humidity- An expression of the amount of water vapor in the air in comparison with the maximum amount that could be there if the air were saturated This is a ratio that is expressed as a percentage.

Water vapor capacity is the maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air at a given temperature. Depending on the measure of actual water vapor content being used, capacity may also be called the saturation absolute humidity, saturation specific humidity, or saturation vapor pressure.

Cooling Processes

Radiative:

Advection

Adiabitic

Cooling Processes:

Radiative process by which a body loses heat by thermal radiation. 

Advection- When warm, moist air is cooled as it crosses over a cooler sea or land surface. Horizontal flow 

Adiabitic- The cooling of a rising parcel of air due to adiabatic processes

Condensation Forms:

Ground Fog

Dew

Frost (Sublimation)

Coastal Fog

Clouds

Ground Fogs generated by near surface cooling by radiation loss during the evening hours. For the fog to develop, the overnight cooling must cause saturation occur. This type of fog is normally quite shallow.

Dew Condensation of water on the Earth's surface because of radiative cooling.

Frost (Sublimation)Deposition of ice at the Earth's surface because of radiative cooling. 

Coastal Fog: Air chilled advectively over water forming fog

Clouds Adiabatic cooling process that produces cloulds at the lifting condensation level

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate:As a parcel of unsaturated air rises, it cools at the relatively steady rate of 10°C per 1000 meters

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate- As soon as condensation begins, latent heat is released (this energy was absorbed originally as the latent heat of evaporation). If the air continues, to rise,cooling due to expansion continues, but release of the latent

heat during condensation counteracts some of the adiabatic cooling and lessens the rate of cooling.

Rising Air:

Instability

Stability

Inversion

Instability: At all elevations, the rising parcel of air is

warmer than the surrounding air, so the parcel is unstable and will rise because of its buoyancy.

Stability: At allelevations, the rising parcel of air is cooler than the surrounding air, so the parcel is stable and will rise only if forced.

Inversion:a situation in which temperature in the troposphere increases, rather than decreases, with increasing altitude. Inversions are relatively common in the troposphere but are usually of brief duration and restricted depth.

Orographic Precipitation

Windward

Leeward

Rainshadow

Orographic Precipitation:Topographic barriers that block the path of horizontal airmovements are likely to cause large masses of air to travel upslope,This kind of forced ascent from orographic lifting can produce orographic precipitation if the ascending air is cooled to the dew point.

Windward:Upwind side or side directly influenced to the direction that the wind blows from - Cloudy rainy

Leeward- Downwind side of an elevated area like a mountain. Clear and dry

Rainshadow- Area of low rainfall on the leeward side of a mountain range or topographic barrier.

Precipitation by ice-crystal formation was first proposed

by the Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron more than half a century ago. It is now known as the Bergeron process and is believed to account for the majority of precipitation outside of tropical regions.

Raindrops

Snow

Sleet

Hail

Rain- drops of liquid water.

Snow- Solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals, small pellets, or flakes, which is formed by the direct conversion of water vapor into ice.

Sleet- sleet refers to small raindrops that freeze during descent and reach the ground as small pellets of ice.

Hail- Hail is a solid form of precipitation produced in cumulonimbus clouds with strong updrafts that are partly at a temperature above the freezing point of water and partly at a temperature below the freezing point of water

Annual Precipitation Pattern

Seasonal Precipitation Pattern

is the expected departure from

average precipitation in any given year, expressed as a

percentage above or below average.

Warming of Land and Water 

Specific Heat: Water has a higher specific heat than

land. 5x more energy for same temp as land

Transmission: Sun rays penetrate further in water b/c water is better transmitter . Solar engery through more matter. Lower temp 

Mobility:currents disperse the energy both broadly and deeply through convection. Land only can disperse though poor conduction

Evaporative Cooling: More water on water than land, latent heat is used. evaporative cooling counteracts some of the warming of a water surface.