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| a caliphate at the zenith of Arab imperial power |
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| a caliphate at the zenith of Arab imperial power, in Baghdad |
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| a Persian, Turkish, and Kurdish dynasty and military leader |
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| Kurdish general who saved the Abbasid Empire by defeating the Crusaders in 1187 |
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| group threatening the Abbasid Empire defeated by Kurdish general Saladin in 1187 |
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| most successful of Turkic tribal rulers who captured Constantinople in 1453 and ruled the Balkans and most of the Arab lands for over 400 years |
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| Ottoman sultan who proclaimed himself caliph as successor to the Prophet Muhammad after his conquest of Egypt in 1517 |
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