Term
Which of the following is not a characteristic of a good plot, graph, or picture of data?
a) a source must be given by the data
b) the picture should contain as much info, color, and extra material to keep readers interested
c) the labels should be clear and informative
d) all of the above are good characteristics |
|
Definition
| b) the picture should contain as much info, color, and extra material to keep readers interested |
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Term
Which of the following is not true about plots, graphs, or pictures of data that you come across in the media?
a) most of these pictures can give you a clear, quick visual summary of that data
b) one purpose is to convey a message more quickly than if you had to study the data on your own
c) very few of the pictures are misleading because they are checked for accuracy and fairness before being presented
d) none of the above |
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Definition
| c) very few of the pictures are misleading because they are checked for accuracy and fairness before being presented |
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Term
Which of the following should be indicated by the labels on a graph?
a) title or purpose of data
b)what each of the axes, bars, pie segments, etc denotes
c) the scale of each axis, including starting point
d) all of the above |
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Definition
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Term
Which of the following is not a type of picture for organizing categorical data?
a) pie chart
b) bar graph
c) pictogram
d) histogram |
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Definition
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Term
Which of the following is not possible to include on a bar graph?
a) frequency in each category for categorical data
b) information representing two or three categorical variables simultaneously
c) proportions that are not required to sum to 100%
d) none of the above |
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Definition
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Term
| A _____ can be used to represent two or three categorical variables simultaneously |
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Definition
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Term
| A _____ is like a bar graph except that it uses pictures related to the topic of the graph |
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Definition
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Term
| A(n) _____ is useful for displaying the relationship between two measurement variables |
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Definition
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Term
| A(n) _______ is a good way to represent measurement data as it changes over time |
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Definition
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Term
| A statistical picture isn't worth much if the ______ can't be trusted |
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Definition
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Term
| Units of measurement are important. If a graph showed the number of crimes in each state for a given year, this would be misleading: the ______ should be reported instead |
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Definition
| Crime rate/crimes per capita |
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Term
Assuming there is a statistical relationship between height and weight for adult females, which of the following statements is true?
a) if we knew the woman's height, we could predict her weight
b) if we knew the woman's height, we could determine the exact weight for all women with that same height
c) if we knew a woman's height, we could predict the average weight for all women with the same height
d) all are true |
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Definition
| c) if we knew a woman's height, we could predict the average weight for all women with the same height |
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Term
Statistical relationships such as correlation are useful for describing features of _____.
a) individual in the population
b) sample from the population
c) aggregate or population
d) all |
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Definition
| c) aggregate or population |
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Term
Most researchers are willing to declare that a relationship is statistically significant if the chances of observing the relationship in the sample when actually nothing is going in the population are less than what percent?
a) 5%
b) 50%
c) 95%
d) non |
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Definition
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Term
A relationship is considered to be statistically significant if that relationship is stronger than what percent of the relationships we would expect to see just by chance?
a) 5%
b)95%
c)50%
d) none |
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Definition
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Term
Which of the following is true?
a) if a relationship is found to be statistically significant, there is a strong relationship between the two measurement variables
b) a relationship that is found to be strong can still be statistically significant
c) if researchers fail to find statistically significant relationship, then no relationship exists between the two measurement variables
d) none |
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Definition
| b) a relationship that is found to be strong can still be statistically significant |
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Term
Which is true if a relationship is statistically significant?
a) researchers have declared that the relationship found in the sample is no a fluke
b) the chances of observing the relationship in the sample when nothing is actually going on in the population are small (less than 5%)
c) this relationship is stronger than 95% of the relationships we would expect to see just by chance
d) all of the above |
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Definition
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Term
| To be convincing, an observed relationship must also be statistically ______ |
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Definition
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Term
| The ______ of the sample can greatly affect whether or not a relationship is found to be statistically _______ |
|
Definition
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Term
| Insignificantly significant |
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Definition
| due to chance/due to coincidence |
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Term
Which of the following describes a strong statistical correlation?
a) value of one measurement variable is always equal to the square of the value of another measurement variable
b) one measurement variable has cause and effect relationship with another measurement variable
c) two measurement variables have a strong linear relationship
d) all |
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Definition
| c) two measurement variables have a strong linear relationship |
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Term
Which of the following is a correct interpretation of a correlation?
a) "the correlation is -.85. This means students with lower verbal SAT scores tend to have lower GPAs as well"
b) "the correlation between husbands' and wives' ages is -.85, so the correlation of their height is +.85
c) "the correlation is -.85. this means that as the distance of a of putt goes up, the success rate of making the putt goes down
d) all |
|
Definition
| c) "the correlation is -.85. this means that as the distance of a of putt goes up, the success rate of making the putt goes down |
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Term
| The ____ between two measurement variables is an indicator of how closely their values fall to a straight line |
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Definition
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Term
| If there is no linear relationship between two measurement variables, the correlation is _____ |
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Definition
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Term
What type of statistical error is being made in the following statement? "If this uphill linear trend continues, 50 years from now, one out of every three of us will be an Elvis impersonator"
a) extrapolation
b) exaggeration
c) over-prediction
d) expectation |
|
Definition
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Term
What impact can an outlier have on a correlation?
a) outlier that is consistent with the trend of the rest of the data will inflate the correlation
b) outlier that is not consistent with the rest of the data can deflate the correlation
c) outlier in a smaller sample has an especially large impact on a correlation to an outlier in a larger sample
d) all |
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Definition
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Term
Which of the following could describe an outlier in a scatterplot?
a) an error in recording of the data
b) a gap in the explanatory variable where no data is available, followed by a point where the data is available
c) a point in the data set whose removal changes the correlation a great deal
d) all |
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Definition
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Term
In which case(s) should you be suspicious of a correlation that is presented?
a) when the data is likely to contain outliers
b) when the sample size is small
c) when removing one point of the data set actually reverses the direction of the trend
d) all |
|
Definition
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Term
| A third variable that was not accounted for can ______ the relationship between two measurement variables being studied |
|
Definition
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Term
| A data point that is far removed from the rest of the data is called a(n) _______ |
|
Definition
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Term
Which of the following can get in the way of concluding a casual connection between two measurement variables?
a) weak correlation
b) observational study
c) confounding variables
d) all |
|
Definition
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Term
When is it appropriate to draw a casual connection between two measurement variables?
a) when there is a strong correlation
b) when the data were collected through an observational study
c) when an observed association between the variables makes sense
d) none |
|
Definition
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Term
Which of the following is true?
a) legitimate correlation never implies causation
b) legitimate correlation does not necessarily imply causation
c) legitimate correlation is equivalent to causation
d) legitimate correlation implies causation in the case of a single observational study, as long as the researchers tried to control for confounding variables |
|
Definition
| b) legitimate correlation does not necessarily imply causation |
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Term
Which of the following is a confounding variable for the relationship between happiness and length of life?
a) happiness level
b) length of life
c) emotional support
d) age at death |
|
Definition
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Term
There is a strong correlation between verbal SAT scores and college GPAs. This does not mean however, that higher SAT scores cause higher grades in college. But what could explain this relationship?
a) confounding variable gender
b) high (low) SAT scores and high (low) GPAs both result from a common cause
c) both SAT scores and GPAs change over time
d) the relationship is purely coincidental |
|
Definition
| b) high (low) SAT scores and high (low) GPAs both result from a common cause |
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Term
If two measurement variables are both found to be changing over time, what does this mean?
a) causal link between the two variables
b) common cause of the changes in both variables (possibly other than time)
c) even though the two variables may be highly correlated, they could be completely unrelated in terms of cause an effect
d) none |
|
Definition
| c) even though the two variables may be highly correlated, they could be completely unrelated in terms of cause an effect |
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Term
| One of the ways two variables could be related without a causal connection is the existence of _______ variables |
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Definition
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Term
| Sometimes an association between two variables is due to ______, even though the odds of it happening appear to be very small |
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Definition
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Term
| The ______ the number of confounding factors that can be ruled out, the _____ convincing the evidence for a causal connection |
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Definition
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Term
| It is very difficult to establish a causal connection between two variables without the use of anything except a(n)________ |
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Definition
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Term
| More pages mean lower price? - T/F |
|
Definition
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Term
| Each row and column in a contingency table is called a(n) ______ |
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Definition
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Term
| A table that displays the number of individuals who fall into each combination of categorical variables is called a(n) _______ table. |
|
Definition
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Term
Which of the following is not one of the basic ways to express the chances that a randomly selected individual will fall into a particular category for a categorical variable?
a) proportion of total that falls into that group
b) percentage of total that falls into that group
c) comparing one category to another category in the form of relative odds
d) none of the above |
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Definition
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Term
| when there is treatment of behavior for which researchers want to study risk, they often compare it to the ______ risk, which is the risk without the treatment or behavior. |
|
Definition
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Term
| When researchers report relative risks and/or ratios, they often adjust them to account for ______ |
|
Definition
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Term
| When omitting a third variable masks the relationship between two categorical variables, this phenomenon is called _________ |
|
Definition
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Term
| Simpson's paradox makes it clear that is dangerous to _____ information across groups, especially if the subjects or experiential units were not _____ assigned to those groups. |
|
Definition
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Term
| Way to express proportion: |
|
Definition
- percent
- proportion
- probability
- risk
- odds
- relative risk
- odds ratio |
|
|
Term
| Statistical hypothesis test |
|
Definition
1. two claims - null and alternative hypothesis
2. test statistics
3. p-value
4. state conclusion (reject null if p-value is less than .05) |
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Term
which of the following does not apply to "statistically significant" relationship between two categorical variables?
a) the relationship between the two variables is very important from a practical standpoint
b) the relationship observed in the sample was unlikely to have occurred unless there really is a relationship in the population
c) the notion that this relationship could have happened by chance is deemed to be implausible
d) all applies |
|
Definition
| a) the relationship between the two variables is very important from a practical standpoint |
|
|
Term
which of the following differences in percentages for the two categories of an explanatory variable would be considered to be statistically significant?
a) 50% - 49% = 1%
b) 50% - 45% = 5%
c) 50% - 40% = 10%
d) not enough info to tell |
|
Definition
| d) not enough info to tell |
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|
Term
| When researchers look for a relationship between two categorical variables for individuals in the _____, they measure those categorical variables on individuals in the _____ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| the question researchers are really asking when they are looking for a relationship between two variables is whether or not that relationship is present in the _____ |
|
Definition
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Term
Suppose you find a statistically significant relationship between two categorical variables (with no other supporting evidence available). When can such results correctly lead you conclude a cause and effect relationship?
a) never
b) only when data were from randomized experiment
c) only when data were from randomized sample
d) always |
|
Definition
| b) only when data were from randomized experiment |
|
|
Term
| Another name for the alternative hypothesis is the _______ hypothesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ______ hypothesis is usually written to express the fact that nothing is happening |
|
Definition
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|
Term
Using the criterion of .05, which of the following results allows the researcher to conclude that a relationship between two categorical variables is statistically significant?
a) p-value = .04
b) p-value = .50
c) p-value = .95
d) none |
|
Definition
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|
Term
Which is true about chi-squared tests?
a) a large chi-squared test statistic results in a large p-value
b) a large p-value means that there is a good chance that the relationship is statistically significant
c) if the two variables |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which of these does not apply to a "statistically significant" relationship between two categorical variables?
a) the relationship between the two variables is very important from a practical standpoint
b) the relationship observed in the sample was unlikely to have occurred unless there really is a relationship in the population
c) the notion that this relationship could have happened by chance is deemed to be impossible
d) all of the above |
|
Definition
| a) the relationship between the two variables is very important from a practical standpoint |
|
|
Term
Which of the following differences in percentages for the two categories of an explanatory variable would be considered to be statistically significance?
a) 50% - 49% = 1%
b) 50% - 45% = 5%
c) 50% - 40% = 10%
d) not enough info to tell |
|
Definition
| d) not enough info to tell |
|
|
Term
| When researchers look for a relationship between two categorical variables for individuals in the _______, they measure those categorical variables on individuals in the ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The question researchers are really asking when they are looking for a relationship between two variables is whether or not that relationship is present in the ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Suppose you find a statistically significant relationship between two categorical variables (with no other supporting evidence available). When can such results lead you to conclude a cause and effect reltationship?
a) never
b) only when the data were from a randomized experiment
c) only when data were from a random sample
d) always; a statistically significant relationship wouldn't be significant unless there is a cause and effect relationship |
|
Definition
| b) only when the data were from a randomized experiment |
|
|
Term
| Another name for the alternative hypothesis is the ______ hypothesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ___ hypothesis is usually written to express the fact that "nothing is happening" |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Using the criterion of .05 which of the following results allows a researcher to conclude that a relationship between two categorical variables is statistically significant?
a) p-value = .04
b) p-value = .50
c) p-value = .95
d) none |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which of the following statements is true about chi-squared tests?
a) a large chi-squared test statistic results in a large p-value
b) a large p-value means that there is a good chance that the relationship is statistically significant
c) if the two variables are not related in the population, then less than 5% of the samples you could ever take would give you a test statistic of 3.84 or larger
d) all |
|
Definition
| c) if the two variables are not related in the population, then less than 5% of the samples you could ever take would give you a test statistic of 3.84 or larger |
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Term
Which of the following statements is not true about chi-squared statistic for a 2x2 contingency table?
a) if it's greater than 3.84, reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis
b) if it is greater then 3.84, the relationship in the table is considered to be statistically significant
c) 95% of the tables for sample data from population in which there is no relationship will have a chi-squared statistic of 3.84 or greater
d) all |
|
Definition
| c) 95% of the tables for sample data from population in which there is no relationship will have a chi-squared statistic of 3.84 or greater |
|
|
Term
| A measure of how unlikely the test statistic would be if the null hypothesis were true is the _________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A ______ test is a statistical procedure that is used to determine whether or not there is a relationship between two categorical variables |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A minor relationship that is found to be _______ significant is not necessarily _______ significant |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| An interesting relationship in the population may fail to achieve _______ significance if there are too _______ observations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A minor relationship in the population may achieve ______ significance but fail to achieve _____ significance if there are an extremely large number of observations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| statistical significance depends on the ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
two variables are independent
ex. that drug doesn't work |
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Term
|
Definition
two variables are not independent
ex. that drug works |
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Term
Which of the following does not apply to CPI (consumer price index)?
a) the CPI measures changes in the cost of a "market basket" of goods and services that a typical consumer would be likely to purchase
b) the CPI is supposed to measure the changing cost of maintaining the same standard of living that existed during the base period
c) the CPI is a complete cost of living index
d) all apply |
|
Definition
| c) the CPI is a complete cost of living index |
|
|
Term
Which of the following is not one of the 8 major categories dividing up the market basket of goods and services used to figure the Consumer Price Index?
a) education and communication
b) child care
c) recreation
d) apparel |
|
Definition
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Term
As a part of computing the CPI, about how many items are priced each month in order to come up with an average price paid by all families in the US for each item in the market basket?
a) 800
b) 8,000
c) 80,000
d) 800,000 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A(n) _____ number measures prices at one time period relative to another time period, usually as percentage |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is produced by the Bureau of ______ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
Which of the following is a major use of the CPI?
a) to evaluate and determine economic policy
b) to compare prices in different years
c) to determine salary and price adjustments
d) all |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which of the following is not true about the CPI?
a) it is always a number greater than or equal to 100
b) it is the most widely used measure of inflation in the US
c) its base year changes periodically
d) all are true |
|
Definition
| a) it is always a number greater than or equal to 100 |
|
|
Term
What do economists believe about the CPI?
a) it underestimates increases in the cost of living
b) it overestimates increases in the cost of living
c) it has almost nothing to do, really, with the cost of living
d) it does a great job of measuring the cost f living |
|
Definition
| b) it overestimates increases in the cost of living |
|
|
Term
What is the CPI most useful for?
a) comparing prices of similar products in the same geographic area across time
b) measuring the complete cost of living for most of Americans
c) measuring the money-saving behavior of US consumers
d) measuring the effects of changes in quality of products over time on the cost of living |
|
Definition
| a) comparing prices of similar products in the same geographic area across time |
|
|
Term
Which of the following does not describe the Index of Leading Economic Indicators?
a) it is based on observing past performance and not on a casual explanation of economic change
b) most, but not all, of the data for its individual components are collected by the US government
c) its behavior is thought to precede that of the general economy by about 6-9 months
d) it is a weighted average of the economic indicators for the 11 industries leading the nation in productivity |
|
Definition
| d) it is a weighted average of the economic indicators for the 11 industries leading the nation in productivity |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| price induces, unemployment rate, monthly trade deficit/surplus, etc. that measure present state of economy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number of new building permits issued, new orders of industrial plants, stock prices, etc. that measure [forecast] future economic activity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reject null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis true |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| accept null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis false |
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|
Term
Which of the following does not describe a time series?
a) a time series is a record of variable across time
b) a time series is usually measured at equally spaced time intervals
c) a time series is a data set on numerous individuals measured in units of time (ex. time until completion of the obstacle course; time until graduation) |
|
Definition
| c) a time series is a data set on numerous individuals measured in units of time (ex. time until completion of the obstacle course; time until graduation) |
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Term
How does a time series plot differ from a histogram?
a) a histogram displays one measurement variable, but a time series plot displays data with two measurement variables at a time (time is one of them)
b) a histogram displays data collected at one point in time, while a time series plot displays data collected over a series of times
c) if a histogram is flat, that indicates more variability than if it were bell-shaped. if a time series plot is flat, that indicates less variability
d) all |
|
Definition
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Term
Which of the following does not describe a time series plot with an irregular cycle?
a) it repeatedly goes up and back down smoothly, but with an irregular pattern so as not to be predictable
b) it randomly fluctuates with no pattern at all
c) its irregularity can often be explained by outside factors such as political or social situations |
|
Definition
| b) it randomly fluctuates with no pattern at all |
|
|
Term
Which of the following components of a time series plot is defined as what's left over when the other three components have been removed?
a) random fluctuation
b) seasonal components
c) irregular cycles
d) long-term trend |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which of the following describes a "detrended" time series?
a) decreasing long-term trend in it
b) randomly fluctuates, sometimes with an increasing trend and sometimes a decreasing trend
c) long-term trend that was removed in order to look for other interesting features
d) all |
|
Definition
| c) long-term trend that was removed in order to look for other interesting features |
|
|
Term
Which of the following components of a time series plot cannot be easily removed or adjusted for in a statistical analysis?
a) seasonal components
b) irregular cycles
c) long-term trend
d) all |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If a long-term trend in a time series plot is linear, we can estimate it by finding a regression line, with time period as the ______ variable |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Many time series measure variables that either increase or decrease steadily across time. This steady change is called a(n) _____ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
Why are changes in CPI big news?
a) financial markets are extremely sensitive to changes in rate of inflation
b) change is what attracts attention and concern in the media, not the continuation of the status quo
c) CPI is made up of many leading economic indicators and a change can represent a sign of an upcoming change in the economy
d) all |
|
Definition
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|
Term
Which of the following is a seasonal factor that can affect an economic time series (such as CPI)?
a) climate
b) vacation practices
c) holidays
d) all |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which of the following describes the result of seasonally adjusting a time series (such as unemployment rate)
a) the seasonal extremes have been removed
b) one time period no longer dominates each year as the high or the low
c) variability is reduced
d) all |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Suppose the president is campaigning for reelection, and says you should vote because downward trend in the unemployment rate has occurred over the last four years. What can you conclude?
a) this trend will likely continue for a long time whether the president is reelected or not
b) the trend could just be a part of the longer-term up and down behavior of unemployment rates
c) trend was definitely caused by president. he should be reelected if you expect it to continue
d) none |
|
Definition
| b) the trend could just be a part of the longer-term up and down behavior of unemployment rates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
often fit by a regression line
when it's subtracted, it's called "detrended"
steady increase/decrease over time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
high on certain months or seasons and low in every other year
when subtracted, it's called "seasonally adjusted" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some explained by social/political factors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what is left over when the other three components have been removed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| record of variability across time, measured at equally spaced intervals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
detrended over time
ex. jean sales |
|
|
Term
Which of the following chances can be quantified exactly?
a) chance it will rain tomorrow
b) chance you will live to be 100
c) chance of getting four of a kind in a poker hand
d) all |
|
Definition
| c) chance of getting four of a kind in a poker hand |
|
|
Term
Which of the following is not an example of using relative-frequency interpretation of probability?
a) buying a lottery ticket every week and observing whether its a winner
b) testing individuals in a population and observing whether they carry a gene for a certain disease
c) being a member of jury and deciding that the chance of the defendant being innocent is very small |
|
Definition
| c) being a member of jury and deciding that the chance of the defendant being innocent is very small |
|
|
Term
Which of the following does not apply to the relative-frequency approach for trying to determine a probability of a specific outcome?
a) probability determined by the proportion of times the outcome occurs in the long run
b) the relative frequecy jumps around if only a few observations are made, but eventually settles down to a certain population as more and more observations are made
c) the relative frequency approach to determining a probability can be applied to short-term observations |
|
Definition
| c) the relative frequency approach to determining a probability can be applied to short-term observations |
|
|
Term
Suppose you encounter one traffic light on your commute to work each day. You have determined that the probability that this light will be red is 1/3. Which of the following is not a correct interpretation of this probability?
a) the light will always be red one out of three times that you encounter it
b) in the long run, the light should be red about 33.33% of the time
c) each time you approach the light on your commute, the probability of it being red is 1/3
d) all |
|
Definition
| a) the light will always be red one out of three times that you encounter it |
|
|
Term
| Using the relative frequency approach, we can define the probability of any specific outcome as the _______ of times it occurs over the long run |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Suppose consumer reports tests a random sample of 1,000 flashlights of a certain brand and finds 20 of them to be defective. they report the chances of buying a defective flashlight to be .02. this is an example of using the ___________ approach to determining a probability |
|
Definition
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|
Term
Which of the following statements is not true regarding personal probabilities?
a) they often take relative frequencies of similar events into account
b) they are based on unique situations that are not likely to be repeated
c) we could each assign a different personal probability of the same event
d) none |
|
Definition
|
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Term
Which of the following is not an example of a statement based on a personal probability?
a) based on his credentials and experience, i believe this candidate has a high chance of being successful here
b) i read in a study that 98% of patients who received the vaccine suffered no side effects, so my chances of developing side effects are very small
c) we believe beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is guilty
d) all |
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Definition
| b) i read in a study that 98% of patients who received the vaccine suffered no side effects, so my chances of developing side effects are very small |
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Which is true about probability?
a) -.22
b) 120%
c) 1
d) none |
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Which of the following are not mutually exclusive?
a) flip fair coin once. outcomes: head, tail
b) flip fair coin twice. outcomes: getting at least one tail, getting at least one head
c) flip fair coin twice. outcomes: getting two tails, getting two heads
d) none |
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Definition
| b) flip fair coin twice. outcomes: getting at least one tail, getting at least one head |
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Suppose the outcomes of births within a given family are independent of each other, and a couple has already had four boys. which of the following best describes the probability that their next baby will be a girl?
a) approximately 50%
b) much less than 50%
c) much greater than 50%
d) not enough info to tell |
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| Suppose the chance that your plane will depart and arrive on time in the same trip as 90%. the chance that your place will depart on time on any given trip is _____ 90% |
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Definition
difference keeps growing with more experiments, but it's actually getting smaller
absolute difference becomes smaller |
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