-dynamic natural body composed of mineral and organic solids, gases, liquids & living organisms which can serve as a medium for plant growth.

-The collection of natural bodies occupying parts of the Earth's surface that is capable of supporting plant growth and that has properties resulting from the integrated effects of climate and living organism acting upon parent material, as conditioned by topography, over periods of time.

What are the essential elements of soil?

-Macronuitrients(large amounts)

& Micronuitrients(small amts)

stable fraction of soil organic  matter remaining after the major portions of added plant and animal reside have decomposed. Usually dark in Color.

-broken down matter now usuable for plants

-Resistant to decay

-charged surface(hold water & ions; much more than clay can)

-Aid in soil structure

-small amt. remarkably increases soil capacity for plant growth.

-

(Also known as Top soil) Second layer, contains percolated organic debris from top layer & decomposing roots,  darkened by accumulation of matter. (lacks clays/leeched downword)

-upper 10 to 25cm

Third layer; intensely weathered & leached soil that has not accumulated organic matter

50% rock/mineral

45% Pore space(water/air)

5% organic matter

Sand- Seen by naked eye, gritty when rubbed, does not stick together

Silt-Cannot be seen, smooth when rubbed, does not stick together

Clay- smallest minerals, forms sticky mass(wet), hard clods(dry)

-*Colloidal*(Tiniest clays): highest surface area, EMIT ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARGES THAT ATTRACT + & - ions well in water, seat of most of the soil's chemical & physical activity)

Minerals that have persisted with little change in composition since they were extruded in molten lava(e.g. quartz, micas & feldspar)

Sand, silt, and clay(the building blocks of soil) & the way that they are arranged together.

-govern how water and air move in soils; influence many processes in soil, including plant roots.

1. Size of soil pores & attraction between water and surfaces of soil particles. Does not flow like from a glass.

2. Soil water is not pure, contains hundreds of dissolved organic/inorganic substences, called SOIL SOLUTIONS.

1.) varies from place to place in soil. (Some areas gases are consumed, others gases are released roots)

2.) Soil air has higher moisture content, relative humidity is %100.

3.) CO2 is usually much higher(100's times) in soil, Oxygen much lower(around half)

-soil air determined by water content.

-Large pores hold air first, smallest last.

Collidal-sized clays exhibit negative/positive charges that act as exchangeable ions. These are released into the soil when it becomes deficient after plant absorbs it.

-Nuitrients ions also released during organic decomposition.

-Very little nuitrients readily available to plants

K+ ions is absorbed and released in solutions(scientists consider this ion exchange process is most important chem. reaction)

-majority in framework of primary minerals & organic matter(top soil); very slowly available. (Long term investment)

-Colloidal fraction: clays & humus; slowly available(short term investment)

-Absorbed fraction: ions held on colloidal surfaces; moderately available.(checking account)

-soil solution; ions freely available; very limited.(pocket cash)

Roots that grow into new, underdepleted soil to obtain nuitrients lower down.This is caused by MASS FLOW when nuitrients in water are carried along toward a root that is drawing water. They draw continually due to nuitrients moving from higher concentration to lower(Diffusion)

-low moisture/hard to flow=low diffusion.

measure of the ability of a soil to carry out particular ecological functions.

-chemical, physical & biological properties

-Degradation:erosion, removal of topsoil, accumulation of salts, overfarming(loss of nuitrients), toxic contamination,

Formed from other rocks through plate shifts causing uplift of mtns, Causes Tremendous heat, melts and compresses, distorting rocks(breaks bonds); Recrystallize metamorphic; forms Gneiss, marble, slate, schist. (Forms lines or bands of light/dark)

-silicate clays

-iron, aluminum oxides

-quartz

Presence of acid, which increase activity of hydrogen ions in water. (E.g. when CO2 dissolves in water, carbonic acid produced hastens chemical dissolution of calcite in limestone)

-acids: CO2, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, etc.

Minerals containing iron, manganese or sulfer are suseptable to oxidation(losses electrons).

-causes color change

1. Parent material(geologic or organic precurser to soil)

2.Climate(precipation/temperature)

3.Biota(organisms, especially vegetation, microbes, soil animals & humans)

4.Topography(slope, aspect, landscape positions)

5.Time(since the parent material began to undergo soil formation)

deposit of rock fragments & soil material accumulated at the base of steep slopes as a result of gravitaional action.(Avalanches)

-more physical than chemical weathering.(course & stoney rocks)

Centuries of wetland organic debris buildup, sink into water and are unable to decompose due to lack of oxygen.

-Builds up several meters deep.

-Found  in cold climates: Canada, Russia, some US.

-PEAT(or fibric) is definable if residues are sufficiently intact enough to identify plant fibers.(Muck is unidentifiable)

-seasonal distribution

-temp. & evaporation

-Topography

-Permeability

Chain-like structure of soil formed by topography, changes in slopes have great effect on soils.

-toposequence is type of catena in which differences among soils result almost entirely from topography, share same parent material and same climate/veg/time.

set of soils that share a common community of organisms, climate, parent material & slope but differ w/ regard to length of time materials have been suject to weathering.

-Measurement of time.

the four soil forming processes

-transformation

-translocation

-additions

-losses

when soil is chemically/physically modified or destroyed.

-weathering

-decomposition of organic matter

-change of arrangement

movement of organic/inorganic materials laterally within horizon, or vertically from one horizon to another.

-water perculation

-fine clays, dissolved salts & organic matter

-animal activity(worms burrowing;ants digging mounds)

inputs of materials from outside source.

-fallen plant leaves, roots

-windblown dust

-Salts from evaporated water solutions

-People & animals(manure/fertilizer)

Lost materials from:

-leaching of groundwater

-erosion of surface

-evaporation & plant use.

-grazing animals & farming

Oi-organic horizon of FIBRIC materials(recognizable leaves,twigs,needles) referred to as litter

Oe-HEMIC material-fine fragmented residues decompsed but still w/ fiber evident when rubbed between fingers.

Oa- SAPRIC material, highly decomposed, smooth, little fiber barely recognizable.

zone of maximum ELUVIATION(washed out) clays, iron, aluminum oxides.

-leaves resistant material(quartz)

-common in forests/rare in grasslands

undergone major changes during soil genesis.

-layer of maximum acculuation of materials from(illuviation) "washing in"

-irons, aluminum oxides & silicate clays

unconsolidated material; may or may not be same as parent material.

-has not been sufficiently altered by soil genesis to qualify as B horizon.

-in dry regions contains gypsum, carbonates.

-loose enough to be DUG WITH A SHOVEL

-caused by serious erosion in cultivated lands

-as surface soil is swept away over the years, plow reaches deeper and deeper into the profile.

-almost entirely B & C horizons.

Mollic = soft

-dark color, surface horizon, accumulated large amt of organic matter, soft even when dry, HIGH BASE SATURATION(over 50%)

-Area of rainfall around 3 months of year

Umbrella= shade or dark; same general characteristics as mollic, except LOWER BASE SATURATION THAN MOLLIC.

-High rainfall areas

-parent material has lower content of calcium/magnesium

Ochros = pale

-Too thin, light in color, or low in organic material to be mollic/umbric.

-Low organic matter = hard & massive when dry.

Melanin = skin tone; black

-Volcanic soil

-high organic matter content

-Light & fluffy

Histos = tissue

-20-60cm thick organic soil material

-formed in wet areas

-peat or mossl black to dark brown in color

-low density

Soil saturated w/ water & virtually free of gaseous oxygen for periods of time.

-poor aeration

Soil moisture is sufficiently high year-round in most years to meet plant needs.

-humid climates (about 1/3 of world land area)

-PERUDIC= Extremely moist through year causing leaching.

Soil moisture intermediate between udic/aridic

-some moisture for plants, significant droughts though.

Soil is dry for atleast 1/2 growing season & moist for less than 90 consecutive days.

-arid regime

-torric: indicates same moisture condition in soils that are both hot and dry in summer, though may not be hot in winter.

Mediterranean climate soil moisture; cool, moist winters & warm dry summers.

-like Ustic regime, characterized by long droughts in summer.

Accumulation of silicate clay illuvated from upper horizons or formed in place

-clays coat pore walls

-shiny surfaces or clay bridges between sand gaps.

Physical disturbance of soil materials caused by formation of ice wedges & expansion/contraction of water as it freezes/thaws.

-Frost churning of soils

-When found in gelisols(permafrost), called Turbels.

-Top soils are organic plant roots & decomposing matter(0&A)

-next layer is clays that have moved through the soil like a game of plinko(E & B)

-Finally Ions are found elluviated from top soils collecting in bottom layer(C)

Describe the 3 terms of Pedology(study of soil)

-Pedon, Polypedon, landscape.

Pedons-

Polypedon-An identifiable soil with distinct characteristics found in a location or region. Composed of numerous pedons.(Like the tree itself)

-Landscape- like encompassment of many trees(polypedons)

Father of soil science:

Came up with formula - S=f(Cl,O,R,P,T,H)

where s - soil properties; cl - regional climate; o - potential biota, r - topography; p - parent material; t - time

No, it has a regolith(broken up body of surface of material; stuff not attached to planet)

-Soil is subset of regolith; Has chem/bio changes from parent material

-LACK OF WATER = LACK OF SOIL; Chemical weathering.

-Basic building block of silicate(Si04);

-ratio of 1:4(silica/oxygen)

-squashed pyramid w/ oxygen on top.

-Charge: -4((1)Silicate= +4, (4)oxygen=-2 each)

-A tetrahedron silicate from volcanoes

-Contains Mg/Fe & Si04(silicate)

-Chain silicates! (2-3 oxygen shared between silicate tetrahedral, forms chain)

-Si03

-Single,double, sheet(1:3) or framework(2:1) chain.

-Think opposite of weathering

-Ex. Granite: compossed of quartz, feldspar & biotite(all melt at different heats); when cooled, crystallize in differing fashions.

-BRS: Take melted rock, cool slowly, find melting points; cooling in order of structure(single ->double->sheet silicate)

-The looser the silicate structure, the more stable at hot temps & vise versa.

-Secondary minerals; 8-sided molecules + tetrahedra = building blocks of clays

-***larger central site than tetrahedral!(imagine the soccer ball scenario, when pressed together, what is the size of the void in the center, try with golf balls, center void is smaller)

-More subsitutions means more negative a mineral wll be(CANNOT GO POSITIVE)***

1:1 clay(secondary mineral)

-made of stucks of silica tetrahedra/octohedra layers

-Ex. pulling oreo apart and intersticking gooey and cookie layers.

-HYDROGEN BONDS: come from neutral molecule with slightly uneven distribution of electrons, creates polarity of negative charges on oxygen atom & positive on hydrogen. (loose bond)

Clays bound by van der waal forces: electron density changes as they move around, lots of contact creating brief electrostatic charge between. (VERY WEAK FORCE BUT VERY LARGE SURFACE AREA-LONG CHAINS)

-Expanding clays

Anion(A-negative-ion"memorizer")

Cation= positive ion.

-Base saturation means 50% or more cation capactity accomodated by base ions.

-GOOD FERTILE SOIL NEEDS HIGH BASE SATURATION

-Kaolinite: 1:1, H+ bond, made clean, low charge

-Motmorillinite: 2:1, not much "cream between oreos" more like mayo holding oreos together(loose,slippery) w/ water polarity, shrinks & swells a lot.

-Illinite:2:1; held together by potassium"cream between oreos is like peanut butter" Strong bond.

-Vermiculture: 2:1; held by magnesium & water "Cream between oreo is like glue"

Primary minerals break down to clays(secondary minerals) when in water, minerals lose nuitrients dissolved in solution(making them available to plants)

-goes from 2:1 clay to 1:1 clay to 0:1 clay

it's the end result of all minerals broken down.

-0:1 clay(Al+3)

-Aluminum hydroxide(the ore we use for all aluminum products)

-It takes A LOT of electricity to make Al+3 stable mineral, so we recycle it to save energy.

Rock changes size & cracks, rock was VERY hot(magma). It cooled & condensed underground(under pressure).

-Creates hexagonal joints above surface(devils postpile); square shapes below surface.

Frost wedging/salt wedging/root wedging

-Salt: salty water gets into cracks water evaporates, crystals grow.(sea water soaking rocks on coast)

Rocks banging together in rivers/falls, water movement & movement of lots of materials, jumbling rocks together, breaking them down.

-Nick point: Niagra Falls; when falls recede from weathering.

Congruent- Ex. Salt in waer leaves no solid residue.

Incongruent- Ex. potassium + acid + water = clay + silicate + ions(leaves a solid byproduct)

A -> B

-Strive to attain equilibrium of this formula; If I add an A or B then It will drive equation to try & get ride of the addition by adding more to the opposite side or decreasing one side.

Reaction of some rock w/ water plus C)2 in gaseous form

-If i react water & CO2, I get H2CO3(Carbonic acid)

-Calcium kicks off the carbonate & becomes part of solution & leaves a bicarbonate extra.

Ex. iron +2  -> Iron +3 plus 1 electron(common reaction)

-Olivine, comm rock full of iron, weathers quickly w/ oxygen, breaks down to make other minerals.

-requires presence of oxygen.

-Common w/ iron and Manganese.

Thermodynamic: is it possible for reaction to occure?

-Soil translation: both factors on weathing/soil formation=

-Thermodynamic determines whether soils weather at all

Requires:1.Unstable rocks, high porosity-parent material

2. good supply of reactant molecules(H20,CO2, 02) & high organic productivity.

3. Removal of soluble reaction products - high precipitation.

Kinetic- how fast a reaction can occur will occur.

-How fast soils form, requires:

1.Continuous presence of water as medium for reaction(dry/cold environments weather slowly. vise versa for hot/wet)

2. Maintenance of high temperatures- warm climate.

Molly = soft

-organic rich, dark, HIGH BASE SATURATION(over 50%)

-GRASSLAND FERTILE SOIL: Grow corn & wheat.

Umbrella = DARK SHADE

-like mollic except lower base saturation

-Grasslands depleted of cations.

Histology= study of tissue

-Thick 0 horizon

-LOTS of plant/organic materials, usually found in marshes & wetlands.

-LOTS of PEAT

Plaggen = Ploughin'

-Ploughed surface, several surface layers mixed together.

-Orangid = Orangish pale.

-Catch-all term, everything leftover.

-Ex. Sand dune w/ surface changes beginning(start of soil formation)

Sodium is LARGE ion

-It's very solitary(why salt dissolves quicklyl sodium getting away from chloride)

The original soil equation:

S = f(cl,o,r,p,t,….)

• Soil, climate, organisms, land relief(topography), parent material & time.

Because soil is VERY OLD

-full of goethite(iron rich) clays

-takes 100's of millions of years of weathering.

-Shows that iron is not a non-renewable source to worry about, it exists all over planet in old soil.

Rainwater is slightly acidic because it reacts w/ CO2 in atmosphere. Normal PH is 5.5(also normal for soil b/c rainwater continually hits it.)

-We're all bathed in light acid.

Glacial outwash

-ground up rock, mostly granite(feldspar), high surface area, primary pimeral(never been C. Weathered, just deposited from ice on rock, 10-20k yrs old, VERY FERTILE)

-found in midwest: Kansas, Ohio, Nebraska, etc.

Think Cambio= currency exchange vendors.

-Changed soil in B horizon(Bw), the w=weak

-weakly developed; waterlogged & anerobic soil.

illuvial accumulation of organic matter.

-associated w/Al, and the soil is generally derived from a sandy parent material.

Not associated w/ Al

-Subsurface soil horizon of well-drained, mineral, tropical and subtropical soils into which humus has leached downward creating a "sombrero" shade. Base saturation is less than 50%.

Old, thick soil

-Weathered soils leave behind Fe, oxides.

Evaporation of water(deserts) accumulates in B horizon, no rain to wash it down.

-Calcic: calcium carbonate- acid makes bubbles.

-Gypsic: heavy source of sulfate required nearby

-Salic: sodium chloride, very rare, dissolves really well only found in driest places w/ lots of salt.

-Won't cover much, uncommon, hard layers.

1. Duripan- durable

2. Fragipans- fragile, thin

3. Placic horizon

1.Argillic- not completely 1:1 clays

2. Natric- 2:1 clay; lots of sodium(latin word for sodium is natrium)

3. Kandic- All 1:1 clays(kalonite) K-horizon.

-Order(12), suborder(63), great group(250), subgroup(1,400), family(8,000), series(19,000)

-

Greek for glue-like, Organic & inorganic matter w/ very small particle size and correspondingly large surface area per unit of mass.

-Tiny clays

-do not readiliy settle in water

-10,000 times more surface area than sand.

-Most soil textures are some type of loam

-Mixture of sand/silt/clay that exhibit properties of those separates in about equal proportions.

-Small amts of clays engender its properties, whereas sand/silt require more.