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| Circumstances that provide an opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve through legitimate channels |
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| Refers to the systemic practices that social groups develop in order to encourage conformity to norms, rules, and laws and to discourage deviance. |
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| The proposition that people feel strain when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to obtain because that do not have access to culturally approved means of achieving those goals. |
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| Differential Association Theory |
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Definition
| The proposition that individuals have a greater tendency to deviate from societal norms when they frequently associate with persons who are more favorable toward deviance that conformity. |
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| The proposition that deviants are those people who have been successfully labeled as such by others. |
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| A perspective that links global inequality to different levels of economic development and suggests that low income economies can move to middle and high income economies by achieving self sustained economic growth |
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| The belief that global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact that the low income countries have been exploited by high income countries. |
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| Suggests that what exists under capitalism is a truly global system that is held together by economic ties. |
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| New International Division of Labor Theory |
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| Commodity production is split into fragments, each of which can be moved to whichever part of the world can provide the best combination of capitol and labor. |
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| Split-Labor-Market Theory |
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| A term used to describe the division of the economy into two areas of employment , a primary sector or upper tier, composed of higher paid workers in more secure jobs, and a secondary sector or lower tier, composed of lower paid workers in jobs with little security and hazardous working conditions |
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| According to conflict theorists, a practice that occurs when members of racial or ethnic group are conquered or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group. |
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| Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis |
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Definition
| States that people who are frustrated in their efforts to achieve a highly desired goal will respond with a pattern of aggression towards others. |
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| Authoritarian Personality |
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| A personality type characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypic thinking. |
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| Belief that racism is such an ingrained feature of U.S. society that it appears to be ordinary and natural to many people. |
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Division of labor
- Deviance is rooted in societal factors such as rapid change and lack of social integration among people.
- As social integration decreased, deviance and crime increased.
- Believed that deviance has positive social functions in terms of in terms of its consequences
- Deviance is a natural inevitable part of all societies |
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- Marxist/critical theory: views deviance and crime as a function of the capitalist economic system.
- Capitalism produces haves and have not’s, who engage in different forms of deviance and crime
- The powerful use law and the criminal justice system to protect their own class interests.
- Viewed class as an important determinant of social inequality and social change.
- class position and the extent of our income and wealth are determined by our work situation, or our relationship to the means of production.
- Capitalistic societies consists of 2 classes, the capitalists and the workers
- Class relationships involve inequality and exploitation
- Predicted that the exploitation of workers by the capitalist class would ultimately lead to class conflict |
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-Termed “life chances”
-Viewed class as an important determinant of social in equality and social change
-economic factors are important in understanding individual and group behavior
- the access that people have to important societal resources is crucial in determining peoples life chances
- developed a multi-dimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige, and power.
- viewed the concept of “class” as an ideal type rather than as a specific social category of “real” people
- Placed categories of people who have similar level of wealth and income in the same class, entrepreneurs rentiers, middle class, and working class |
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- Knowledge as power theory
- Power, knowledge, and social control are intertwined. In prisons, for example, new means of surveillance that make prisoners think they are being watched all the time give officials knowledge that inmates do not have. Thus, the officials have a form of power over the inmates. |
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-Highly prejudiced individuals tend to have an authoritarian personality
- It is most likely to develop in a family environment in which dominating parents who are anxious about status use physical discipline but show very little love in raising their children |
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- Strain theory
- Deviance occurs when access to the approved means of reaching culturally approved goals is blocked. Innovation, ritualism, retreatism, or rebellion may result. |
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Differential association theory
- People learn the necessary techniques and the motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes of deviant behavior from people with whom they associate.
- Developed occupational (white-collar) theory: comprises illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or financial affairs. |
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- Labeling theory
- Acts are deviant or criminal because they have been labeled as such. Powerful groups often label less powerful individuals |
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Primary/Secondary deviance theory
- Primary deviance is the act. Secondary deviance occurs when a person accepts the label of “deviant” and continues to engage in the behavior that initially produced the label. |
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- Social control/Social bonding theory
- Social bonds keep people from being criminals. When ties to family, friends, and others become weak, an individual is most likely to engage in criminal behavior
- Social bonding consists of 1. attachment to other people, 2. commitment to conformity, 3. involvement in conventional studies, 4. belief in legitimacy of conventional values and norms |
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Stratification Theorist
-material interests are “the interests people have in their material standard of living, understood as the package of toil, consumption and leisure.
- concluded that Marx’s definition of workers does not fit the occupations found in advanced capitalist societies.
- argues that classes in modern capitalism cannot be defined simply terms simply in terms of different levels of wealth, power, prestige.
- Outlined 4 criteria for placement in the class structure 1. ownership of the means of production, 2. purchase of the labor of others, 3. control of the labor of others, 4. sale of one’s own labor
- Capitalist class, managerial class, small business class, and the working class |
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| The initial act of rule- breaking. |
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| The process that occurs when a person who has been labeled a deviant accepts that new identity and continues that deviant behavior. |
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| Deviance that occurs when a person who has been labeled a deviant seeks to normalize the behavior by relabeling it as non-deviant. |
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| A feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people from oneself. |
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| Emile Durkham’s designation for a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society. |
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| Occurs when people accept culturally approved goals and pursue them through approved means. |
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| Occurs when people accept societies goals but adopt disapproved means of achieving them. |
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| Which occurs when people give up on societal goals but still adhere to the socially approved means of achieving them. |
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| Occurs when people abandon both the approved goals and the approved means of achieving them. |
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| Occurs when people challenge both the approved goals and the approved means for achieving them, and advocate an alternative set of goals or means. |
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| Is punishment that a person receives for infringing on the rights of others. |
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| Seeks to reduce criminal activity by instilling a fear of punishment in the general public. |
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| Is based on the assumption that offenders who are detained in prison or are executed will be unable to commit additional crimes |
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| Seeks to return offenders to the community as law abiding citizens by providing therapy or vocational or educational training. |
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| - Is an extreme form of stratification in which some people are owned by others. |
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| Is a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents ascribed characteristics |
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| Is a type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the type of work people do. |
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| Refers to the extent to which individuals have access to important societal resources such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care. |
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| Intragenerational Mobility |
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| Is the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime. |
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| Intergenerational Mobility |
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| Is the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next one. |
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| physical,non human inputs used to produce wealth. (ie: the land and capital necessary for factories and mines |
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| Is the value of all of a person’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income -producing property. |
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| The respect or regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others. |
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| ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others. |
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| a hierarchy in which all positions are rewarded based on peoples ability and credentials. |
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| The closing of plants and factories because of their obsolescence or the fact that workers in other nations are being hired to do work more cheaply. |
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| Consists of those who own the means of production |
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| The managerial class has substantial control over the means of production and over coworkers. |
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| Consists of small business owners and craftspeople who may hire a number of employees but largely do their own work. |
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| These people are poor, seldom employed ,and caught in long term |
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| The working poor class live from just above to just below the poverty line. typically holds unskilled jobs. |
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| Consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. |
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| All the goods and services produced within a country’s economy during a given year. |
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| Measure of income inequality which ranges from zero (meaning that everyone has the same income) to 100 (one person receives all the income). |
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| High school diploma was necessary to qualify for the most middle class. |
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| Persons in the upper -middle class are often highly educated professionals who have built careers as physicians, attorneys, stock brokers, or corporate managers. |
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| Members that are extremely wealthy but do no prestige status. |
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| Members that are extremely wealthy and have a high prestige status. |
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| Dominant capitalist centers characterized by high levels of industrialization and urbanization. |
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| Nations that are dependent on core nations for capitol, have little or no industrialization (other than what may be brought in by core nations), and have uneven patterns of urbanization. |
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| More developed than peripheral nations but less developed than core nations. |
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| Average number of years of life remaining after a specified age for a given group of individuals |
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| Exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. |
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| Exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living |
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| Standard family income threshold (set by each state and revised occasionally) below which the family is officially classified as poor and entitled to welfare. |
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| The extent to which people are willing to interact and establish relationships with members of racial and ethnic groups other than their own. |
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| A reduction in the proficiency needed to perform a specific job that leads to a corresponding reduction in the wages for that job. |
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| Is a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior , often on the basis of real or alleged physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, eye shape, or other subjectively selected attributes. |
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| A collection of people distinguished, by others or by themselves , primarily o the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. |
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| Is a negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about members of selected racial and ethnic groups. |
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| Involves actions or practices of dominant -group members that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate group. |
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| over generalizations about the appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of members of particular categories. |
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| Individual Discrimination |
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| Consists of one-on-one acts by members of the dominant group that harm members of the subordinate group or their property. |
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| Institutional Discrimination |
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| Consists of the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups. |
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| Refers to laws that systematically enforced the physical and social separation of african americans in all areas of public life. |
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| Racial segregation and inequality enforced by custom. |
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| Occurs when members of an ethnic group adopt dominant- group traits, such as language, dress, values, religion, and food preferences. |
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| Occurs when members subordinate racial or ethic groups gain acceptance in everyday social interaction with members of the dominant group. |
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| Occurs when members of one group marry those of other social or ethnic group. |
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| Psychological Assimilation |
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Definition
| Involves change in racial or ethnic self identification on the part of an individual . |
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