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Sociology
Starting from partway through chapter two these are flashcards from
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Sociology
Undergraduate 1
07/15/2012

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Term
Dramaturgy 
Definition
a theoretical paradigm that uses the metaphor of theatre to understand how individuals present themselves to others.
Term
ethnomethodology
Definition
the study of "folk methods," or every day interactions, that must be uncovered rather than studied directly.
Term
Conversation analysis
Definition
a sociological approach that looks at how we create meaning in naturally occuring conversation, often by taping conversations and examining them
Term
Feminist theory 
Definition
a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequalities in society and the way that gender structures the social world.
Term
Queer theory
Definition
a paradigm that proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundementally either deviant or normal.
Term
Postmodernism 
Definition
a paradigm that suggests that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux.
Term
Modernism
Definition
a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life.
Term

CHAPTER THREE

  :)

Definition
Term
Quantitative 
Definition
a type of data that can be converted into numbers, usually for statistical comparison 
Term
Qualitative
Definition
a type of data that can't be converted into numbers, usually because they relate to meaning. 
Term
Scientific Method 
Definition
a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and observation
Term
Literature Review
Definition
a thorough search through previously published studies revelant to a particular topic
Term
Hypothesis
Definition
a theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena
Term
Variables
Definition
one of two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related and hopes to prove are related through research 
Term
Operational definition 
Definition
a clear and precise definition of a variable  that facilitates is measurement
Term
Correlation
Definition
a relationship between variables in which they change together. May or may not be causal
Term
Causation
Definition
a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other
Term
intervening variable
Definition
a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables
Term
Spurious Correlation 
Definition
the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable
Term
Paradigm shift 
Definition
the term used to describe a change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline
Term
Ethnography 
Definition
a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study 
Term
Participant Observation 
Definition
a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting
Term
Access
Definition
the process by which an ethnographer gain entry to a feild setting
Term
Rapport
Definition
a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy
Term
Feildnotes 
Definition
 detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the ethnographic analysis
Term
Reflexivity
Definition
how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting
Term
Grounded Theory
Definition
an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships between categories 
Term
Open-ended Questions
Definition
a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses
Term
Leading Questions 
Definition
questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way
Term
Double-barreled questions
Definition
questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete answers
Term
Survey
Definition
a method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected form a target population 
Term
Likert Scale
Definition
a way of organizing on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum 
Term
Negative Questions
Definition
survey questions that ask what they don't think instead of what they do
Term
Representative Sample
Definition
a sample taken so that findings from members of the sample group can be generalized to the whole population
Term
Probablility Sampling
Definition
any sampling scheme in which the probability of selecting any given unit is known.
Term
Simple Random Sample 
Definition
a particular type of probablilty sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Term
Weighting 
Definition
techiniques for manipulating the sampling procedure so that the sample more closely resembles the larger population
Term
Response Rate 
Definition
the number or percentage of surveys completed by the respondents and returned to researchers
Term
Reliability
Definition
the consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers
Term
Confidentiality 
Definition
the assurance that no one other that the researcher will know the identity of a respondent
Term
Validity
Definition
the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring
Term
Pilot Study 
Definition
a small study carried out to test the feasiblity of a larger one
Term
Existing sources 
Definition
any data that have already been collected and are available for future research 
Term
Comparative and Historical Methods
Definition
methods that use existing sources to study relationships between elements of society in various regions and time periods
Term
Content Analysis
Definition
a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables--such as words--in a text, image, or media message
Term
Experiments
Definition
formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled
Term
Control
Definition
in an experiment, the process of regulating all factors except for the independent variable
Term
Experimental Group 
Definition
The part of a test group that receives the experiments treatment
Term
Control Group
Definition
the part of a test group that is allowed to continue without intervention so that it can be compared with the experimental group
Term
Independent Variable
Definition
factor that is predicted to cause change
Term
Dependent Variable
Definition
factor that is changed by the independent variable
Term
Value-free sociology
Definition
an ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere
Term
Basic Research
Definition
the search for knowledge without any agenda or desire to use that knowledge to effect change
Term
applied research 
Definition
research designed to allow the researcher to use what is learned to crete some sort of change
Term
Objectivity
Definition
impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves
Term
Reactivity 
Definition
The tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied
Term
Hawthorne Effect
Definition
a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself
Term
Deception
Definition
the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals
Term
Code of Ethics
Definition
ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project
Term
Institution Review Board 
Definition
a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects
Term

CHAPTER FOUR

(Part II)

Definition
Term
Culture 
Definition
the entire way of life of a group of people (including both material and symbolic elements) that acts as a lens through which one views the world and is passed from one generation to the next
Term
Ethnocentrism 
Definition
the principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to elevate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal.
Term
Culture Relativism 
Definition
The principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one's own culture
Term
Material Culture
Definition
The objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings and artwork: any physical object which we give social meaning
Term
Symbolic culture
Definition
The ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, mand communication)
Term
Sign
Definition
a symbol that stands for or conveys an idea
Term
Gestures
Definition
the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate without words; actions that have symbolic meaning
Term
Language
Definition
A system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, or written symbols; the basis of symbolic culture and the primary means through which we communicate with one another and perpetuate our culture
Term
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Definition
the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language
Term
Values
Definition
ideas about what is desirable or contemptible and right or wrong in a particular group. They articulate the essence of everything that a cultural group cherishes and honors
Term
Norm
Definition
a rules or guideline regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture
Term
Law
Definition
A common type of formally defined norm, providing an explicit statement about what is permissible and what is illegal in a given society
Term
Folkway
Definition
A loosely enforced norm involving common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance
Term
More
Definition
A norm that carries great moral significance, is closely related to the core values of a cultural group, and often involves severe repercussions for violators
Term
Taboo
Definition
A norm ingrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes stong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion
Term
Sanction
Definition
Positive or negitive reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for confromity and punishments for norm violations
Term
Social Control
Definition
The formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion
Term
Multiculturalism 
Definition
A policy that values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and so encourages the retention of cultural differences within society rather than assimilation
Term
Dominant Culture 
Definition
The Values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (terms of wealth, prestige, status, influence, etc.)
Term
Hegemony
Definition
Term developed by Antonio Gramsci to describe the cultural aspects of social control, whereby the ideas of the dominant social group are accepted by all of society
Term
Subculture
Definition
A group within society that is differentiated by its distincitve values, norms and lifestyle
Term
Counterculture
Definition
A group within society that openly rejects and/or actively opposes society's values and norms
Term
Culture Wars 
Definition
Clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld
Term
Ideal Culture 
Definition
The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed in principle.
Term
Real Culture
Definition
The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that actually exist within a society (which may or may not correspond to the society's ideals)
Term
Popular Culture
Definition
Usually contrasted with the high culture of elite groups; forms of cultural expression usually associated with the masses, consumer goods, and comercial products.
Term
High Culture
Definition
Those forms of cultural expression usually associated with the elite or dominant classes.
Term
Taste Publics
Definition
Groups of people who share similar artistic, artistic, literary, media, recreational, and intellectual interests
Term
Taste Cultures
Definition
Areas of culture that share similar aesthetics and standards of taste
Term
Polysemy
Definition
Having many possible meanings or interpretations
Term
Interpretive Community
Definition
A group of people dedicated to the consumption and interpretation of a particular cultural productand who create a collective, social meaning for  the product
Term
Art World 
Definition
The group composed of everyone involved in the creation, distribution, and consumption of any cultural product
Term
Technology
Definition
Material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them 
Term
Technological Determination 
Definition
The notion that developments in material culture provide the primary driving forces behind social orginization and social change
Term
Cultural Diffusion
Definition
The dissemination of beliefs and practices from one group to another
Term
Cultural Leveling
Definition
The process by which cultures that were once distinct become increasingly similar
Term
Cultural Imperialism
Definition
The imposition of one culture's beliefs, practices, and artifacts on another culture through mass media and consumer products
Term

CHAPTER 5

:)

Definition
Term
Nature v. Nurture Debate
Definition
The ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits
Term
Socialization 
Definition
The Process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become funtioning members of society
Term
Self 
Definition
The individual's concious, reflexive experience of a personal identity seperate and distinct from other individuals
Term
ID, Ego and Superego
Definition
According to Freud, the three interrelated parts that make up the mind. The id consists of basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive pychic energy. The ego is the realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and the superego. The superego has two components (the conscience and the ego-ideal) and represents the internalized demands of society.
Term
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Definition
Four distinct stages of the development of the self between birth and adulthood, according to Freud. Each stage is assciated with a different erogenous zone.
Term
Looking-Glass Self
Definition
The notion that the self develops through our  perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us.
Term
Preparatory Stage 
Definition
The first stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children mimic or imitate others.
Term
Play Stage
Definition
The second stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children pretend to play the role of the particular or significant other.
Term
Particular or Sinificant Other
Definition
The perspective and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes
Term
Games Stage
Definition
The third stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children play organized games and take on the perspectives of the generalized other
Term
Generalized Other
Definition
The perspectives and expectations of a network of others (or of a society in general) that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior.
Term
Dual Nature of the Self
Definition
The belief that we experience the self as both subject and object, the "I" and the "me"
Term
Thomas Theorem 
Definition
Classic formulation of the way individuals define situations, whereby "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences"
Term
Definition of the Situation 
Definition
An agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given cicumstance. This consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with those of others and realize goals.
Term
Expressions of behavior
Definition
Small actions such as an eye roll or head nod, which serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of situation to others
Term
Expressions Given
Definition
Expressions that are intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances
Term
Expressions Given Off
Definition
Observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal
Term
Impression Management
Definition
The effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics
Term
Dramaturgy
Definition
An approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance
Term
Front
Definition
In the dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation
Term
Personal Front
Definition
The expressive equipment we conciously or unconciously use as we present ourselves to others, including appearance and manner; they help establish the definition of the situation.
Term
Region 
Definition
In the dramaturical perspective, the context or setting in which the performance takes place
Term
Backstage
Definition
In the dramaturgical perspective, places in which we reheaerse and prepare for our performances
Term
Frontstage
Definition
In the dramaturgical perspective, the region in which we deliver our public performances
Term
Social Construction
Definition
The process by which a concept of practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists
Term
Cooling the Mark Out
Definition
Behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarressment, often referred to as civility or tact
Term
Autoethnographer
Definition
Ethnographic description that focuses on the feelings and reactions of the ethnographer
Term
Agents of Socialization
Definition
Social groups, institutions, and individuals (especially the family, schools, peers, and the mass media) that provide structured situations in which socialization
Term
Hidden Curriculum
Definition
Values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling because of the structure of the educational system and teaching methods used
Term
Resocialization 
Definition
The process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a partof transistion in life
Term
Total Institution 
Definition
An institution in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that their lives can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones
Term
Status
Definition
A positition in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations
Term
Ascribed Status
Definition
An inborn status; usually difficult or impossible to change
Term
Embodied Status
Definition
A status generated by physical charateristics
Term
Achieved Status
Definition
A status earned through individual effort or imposed by others
Term
Master Status
Definition
A status that is always relevant and 
Term
Stereotyping 
Definition
Judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people
Term
Role
Definition
The set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status
Term
Role Conflict
Definition
Experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations
Term
Role Strain
Definition
The tension experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role.
Term
Role Exit
Definition
The process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy.
Term
Role-Taking Emotions
Definition
Emotions like symapthy, embarrassment, or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or many other people and respond from that person on group's point of view. 
Term
Feeling Rules 
Definition
Socially constructed norms regarding the expression and dissplay of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelingsin a given situation
Term
Emotion Work (Emotional Labor)
Definition
The process of evoking suppressing or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion
Term
Copresence
Definition
Face-to-face interaction or being in the presence of others
Term
Agency 
Definition
The ability of the individual to act freely and independently
Term

CHAPTER 6

:)

Definition
Term
Group
Definition
A collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other.
Term
Crowd
Definition
A temporary gathering of people in a public place; members might interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact.
Term
Aggregate
Definition
A collection of people who share a phsyical location but do not have lasting social relations.
Term
Primary Groups
Definition
The people who are most important to our sense of self; members' relationships are typically characterized by face-to-face interaction, high levels of cooperations, and intense feelings of belongings.
Term
Secondary Groups 
Definition
Largers and less intimate than primary groups; members' relationships are usually organized around a specific goal and are often temporary.
Term
Social Network
Definition
The web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect her.
Term
Social Ties
Definition
Connections between individuals.
Term
Anomie 
Definition
"Normlessness," term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change.
Term
Electronic or Virtual Communities
Definition
Social Groups whose interactions are mediated through information technologies, particularly the internet.
Term
Group Dynamics
Definition
The Patterns of interaction between groups and individuals.
Term
Dyad
Definition
A two-person social group.
Term
Triad
Definition
A three person social group.
Term
In-Group
Definition
A group that one identifies with and feels loyalty toward.
Term
Out-Group
Definition
Any group an individual feels opposition, rivalry or hostility toward.
Term
Reference Group 
Definition
A group that providesa standard of comparison against which we evaluate ourselves.
Term
Group Cohesion
Definition
The sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong.
Term
Groupthink
Definition
In very cohesive groups, the tendency to enforce a high degree of comformity among members, creating a demand for unimous agreement.
Term
Social Influence (Peer Pressure)
Definition
The influence of one's fellow group members on individual attitudes and behaviors.
Term
Prescriptions
Definition
Behaviors approved of by a particular social group.
Term
Proscriptions
Definition
Behaviors approved of by a paricular social group.
Term
Compliance
Definition
The mildest types of conformity, undertaken to gain rewards or aviod punishments.
Term
Identifications
Definition
A type of conformity stronger than compliance and weaker than internalization, caused by a desire to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or a group.
Term
Internalization
Definition
The strongest type of conformity, occuring when an individual adopts the beliefs or actions of a group and makes them her own. 
Term
Social Identity Theory
Definition
A theory of group formation and maintenance that stresses the need of individual members to feel a sense of belonging.
Term
Power 
Definition
The ability to control the actions of others.
Term
Coercive Power 
Definition
Power that is backed by the threat of force.
Term
Influential Power
Definition
Power that is supported by persuasion. 
Term
Authority 
Definition
The Legitimate right to weild power.
Term
Traditional Authority
Definition
Authority based in custom, birthright, or divine right.
Term
Legal-Rational Authority
Definition
Authority based in laws, rules, and procedures, not in the heredity or personality of any individual leader.
Term
Charismatic Authority
Definition
Authority based in the perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader.
Term
Instrumental Leadership
Definition
Leadership that is a task or goal oriented.
Term
Expressive Leadership
Definition
Leadership concerned with maintaining emotional and relational harmony within the group.
Term
Bureaucracy
Definition
A type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication.
Term
Rationalization 
Definition
The application of economic logic to human activity, the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns.
Term
McDonaldization
Definition
George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization.
Term

CHAPTER 7

:)

Definition
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