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| The existence of structured inequalities between groups in society, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards. While all societies involve some forms of stratification, only with the development of state-based systems did wide differences in wealth and power arise. The most distinctive form of stratification in modern societies is class division. |
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| Caste (system or societies) |
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Definition
Caste Societies: Societies in which different social levels are closed, so that all individuals must remain at the social level of their birth throughout life.
Caste System: A social system in which one's social status is given for life. |
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| Socioeconomic status (SES) |
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| an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family’s economic and social position relative to others, based on income, education, and occupation. When analyzing a family’s SES, the household income, earners' education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, versus with an individual, when their own attributes are assessed. |
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| consciousness of one's social class or economic rank in society.From the perspective of Marxist theory, it refers to the self-awareness, or lack thereof, of a particular class; its capacity to act in its own rational interests; or its awareness of the historical tasks implicit (given the precepts of Marxism) to it |
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| A term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person's opportunities for achieving economic prosperity. |
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| if such mobility involves a change in position, especially in occupation, but no change in social class. |
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| Structural mobility is a type of forced vertical mobility that results from a change in the distribution of statuses within a society. It occurs when the demand for a particular occupation reaches its maximum and more people are needed to v means trade-off. This means instead of positions reaching the maximum and more people being needed, positions are dropped and someone else must step up to fill the position. When ascriptive status is in play, there is not much exchange mobility occurring. |
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| The process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories. |
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| a term used by post-colonial critics of developed countries' involvement in the developing world. Writings within the theoretical framework of neocolonialism argue that existing or past international economic arrangements created by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of their former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post–World War II period |
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| Pioneered by Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory emphasizes the interconnections among countries based on the expansion of a capitalist world economy. This economy is made up of core countries, semi-periphery, and periphery. |
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| Differences in human physical characteristics used to categorize large numbers of individuals. |
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| Cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others. An ethnic group is one whose members share a distinct awareness of a common cultural identity, separating them from other groups. In virtually all societies, ethnic differences are associated with variations in power and material wealth. Where ethnic differences are also racial, such divisions are sometimes especially pronounced. |
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| The holding of preconcieved ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are resistant to change even in the face of new information. Prejudice may be either positive or negative. |
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| The attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics. Racism is one specific form of prejudice, focusing on physical variations between people. Racist attitudes became entrenched during the period of Western colonial expansion, but seem also to rest on mechanisms of prejudice and discrimination found in human societies today. |
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| Institutional Discrimination |
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Definition
efers to the unfair, indirect treatment of an individual embedded in the operating procedures, policies, laws, or objectives of large organizations such as the governments and corporations, financial institutions (banks, investment firms, money markets), public institutions (schools, police forces, healthcare centers), and other larger entities.
Usually the bias targets specific, facile attributes including race, gender, nationality, sexual orientation, and age. Though direct discrimination is legally iniquitous by United States law, many people believe that it exists in some of the social institutions and practices carried out every day. Because of institutionalized discrimination, meritocracy cannot be realized. |
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| The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture. |
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| refers to the use of an individual’s race or ethnicity by law enforcement personnel as a key factor in deciding whether to engage in enforcement (e.g. make a traffic stop or arrest). The practice is controversial and is illegal in some nations, and the empirical evidence is that it is an ineffective strategy[citation needed]. |
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| Behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others. Discrimination must be distinguished from prejudice: Individuals who are prejudice against others many not engage in discriminatory practices against them; conversely, people may act in a discriminatory fashion toward a group even though they are not prejudiced against that group. |
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| refers to policies that take factors including "race, color, religion, gender , or national origin"[1] into consideration in order to benefit an underrepresented group, usually as a means to counter the effects of a history of discrimination. The focus of such policies ranges from employment and education to public contracting and health programs. |
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| a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups based on some prior assumptions. |
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| Social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex. Gender refers not to the physical attributes distinguishing men and women but to socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity. The study of gender relations has become one of the most important areas of sociology in recent years. |
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| The dominance of men over women. All known societies are patriarchal, although there are variations in the degree and nature of the power men exercise, as compared with women. One of the prime objectives of women's movements in modern societies is to combat existing patriarchal institutions. |
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| pink-collar worker is employed in a job that is traditionally considered to be women's work. The term arose to distinguish these female-oriented jobs from the blue-collar worker, a worker in manual labor, and the white-collar worker, a professional or educated worker in largely office positions. Pink-collar jobs usually pay a significantly smaller amount of money than blue-collar or white-collar jobs. |
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| A promotion barrier that prevents a woman's upward mobility within an organization |
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| A group of individuals related to one another by blood ties, marriage, or adoption, who form an economic unit, the adult members of which are responsible for the upbring of the children. All known societies involve some form of family system, although the nature of family relationships varies widely.While in modern societies the main family form is the nuclear family, extended family relationships are also found |
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| A relation that links individuals through blood ties, marriage, or adoption. Kinship relations are by definition part of marriage and the family, but extended much more broadly. While in most modern societies few social obligations are involved in kinship relations extending beyond the immediate family, in other cultures kinship is of vital importance to social life. |
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| A socially approved sexual relationship between two individuals. Marriage almost always involves two persons of opposite sexes, but in some cultures, types of homosexual marriage are tolerated. Marriage normally forms the basis of a family of procreation which is it is expected that the married couple will produce and bring up children. Some societies permit polygamy, in which an individual may have several spouses at one time. |
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| A family system in which the husband is expected to live near the wife's parents |
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| described as a societal mating practice in which individuals engage in sequential monogamous pairings[8], or in terms of humans, when men or women marry another partner sequentially[9]. However, one does not need to marry in order to be considered as practicing serial monogamy, as it can also be defined multiple pair-bonding, or having more than one sequential mate. When one individual is married and still has extramarital affairs, they would be considered as practicing serial polygamy, as this is no longer socially accepted in monogamous societies. This form of serial polygamy can exist as both polyandry and polygyny, as studies have found that in some cases women do benefit from multiple mating partners. |
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marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other. Homogamy may be based on socio-economic status, class, gender, ethnicity, or religion.[1] It is a form of assortative mating.
It can also refer to the socialization customs of a particular group; such that people who are similar in religion, class, gender, or culture tend to socialize with one another.
Homogamy has been suggested as a term for same-sex marriage or other union, and heterogamy as a term for marriage or union between people of different sexes. |
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| A set of beliefs adhered to by the members of a community, incorporating symbols regarded with a sense of awe or wonder together with ritual practices. Religions do not universally involve a belief in supernatural entities. |
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| Described something that inspires attitudes of awe or reverence among believers in a given set of religious ideas. |
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| Fragmentary religious groupings to which individuals are loosely affiliated, but which lack any permanent structure. |
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| The system of production and exchange that provides for the material needs of individuals living in a given society. Economic institutions are of key importance in all social orders. What goes on in the economy usually influences other areas in social life. Modern economies differ substantially from traditional ones, because the majority of the population is no longer engaged in agricultural production. |
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| Strongly developed nation-states in which the majority of the population work in factories or offices rather than in agriculture, and most people live in urban areas. |
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| A notion advocated by those who believe that processes of social change are taking us beyond the industrialized order. A postindustrial society is based on the production of information rather than material goods. According to post industrialist, we are currently experiencing a series of social changes as profound as those that initiated the industrial era some two hundred year ago. |
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| An economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested in order to produce profits. |
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| The means by which power is employed to influence the nature and content of governmental activities. The sphere of the political includes the activities of those in government, but also the actions of others. There are many ways in which people outside the governmental apparatus seek to influence it. |
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| The ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold. Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. Many conflicts in society are struggles over power, because how much power an individual or group is able to achieve governs how far they are able to put their wishes into practice. |
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| A government's legitimate use of power. |
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| a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to legal rationality, legal legitimacy and bureaucracy. The majority of the modern state of the twentieth century are rational-legal authorities, according to those who use this form of classification. |
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| The average number of live-born children produced by women of childbearing age in a particular society. |
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| A measure of the number of children that it is biologically possible for a woman to produce. |
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| the ratio of males to females in a population. The primary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of conception, secondary sex ratio is the ratio at time of birth, and tertiary sex ratio is the ratio of mature organisms. |
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| A doctrine about population dynamics developed by Thomas Malthus, according to which population increase comes up against "natural limits" represented by famine and war. |
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| Large groups of people who seek to accomplish, or to block, a process of social change. Social movements normally exist in conflict with organizations, whose objectives and outlook they oppose. However, movements that successfully challenge power, once they become institutionalized, can develop into organizations. |
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| a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. |
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| Feelings of deprivation a person feels by comparing himself with a group |
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| escribes associations in which, for the individual, the larger association never takes on more importance than the individual's self interest, and lack the same level of shared mores. Gesellschaft is maintained through individuals acting in their own self interest. |
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| According to EMile Durkheim, the social cohesion that results from the various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole. |
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| efers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by this lag. Subsequently, cultural lag does not only apply to this idea only, but also relates to theory and explanation. It helps by identifying and explaining social problems and also to predict future problems. |
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| efer only to the social relations associated with the rise of capitalism. Modernity may also refer to tendencies in intellectual culture, particularly the movements intertwined with secularisation and post-industrial life, such as Marxism, existentialism, and the formal establishment of social science. In context, modernity has been associated with cultural and intellectual movements of 1436—1789 and extending to the 1970s or later |
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